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Ch. Fries’s Classification of Words.





Ch. Fries’s Classification of Words.

The Noun. Its General Characteristics.

Traditionally:

- they possess the meaning of thingness, substance;

- several classifications of nouns in English:

a) They fall into proper (Anna) & common (table)

b) Animate (friend)& inanimate (table)

c) Countable (singular & plural) & uncountable

- Have a 2-case system: the Common case & the Genetive case

- In sentence nouns mainly functions as subj-s & obj-s, can also be predicatives, attributes, adverbial modifiers.

The demerit of trad. approach – is that this classification can not be structural hierarchically.

The form of the noun deals with number & case.

The Category of Number.

Is a quantative characteristic. Is expressed by a binary privative opposition.

Nouns – countable & uncountable (pluralia tantum & singularia tantum)

Means to express plurality – morphological, irregular morphological, root-level gradation, archaic (ox-oxen).

- syntactic means (plurality is expressed by the form of a verb)

- lexically – by use of such words as bit, peace, item, sort, group, set.

Theoretical gram. proper.

Number is understood as a quantative characteristic.

Isachenko – the idea of his approach – the meaning of the category of number is not of quantative, but the meaning of plurality is that of expressed or unexpressed discreetness.

Ex. Нужно привести кирпич для дачи. (plurality)

Нужно подложить кирпич под калитку.

Ex. Three hours is a long period of time. (a whole period of time) – unexpressed discreetness.

Lexicalization of the plural form – the meaning of the noun in the plural differs from the meaning of the noun in the singular.(ex. Colour – colours /краски, флаги/)

 

The Category of Case.

It shows the relation between the noun & the other words in the sentence.

The Genetive case – stronger than Common case.

Different approaches: a non-morphological approach to the category of case:

1) The theory of positional cases (J. Nesfield, Max Deutschbein). They speak about such cases:

- Nominative (the noun is used as a subject)

- Vocative (the noun is used as direct address)

- Accusative (the noun is used as a direct obj)

- Dativ (as an indirect obj – ex. I gave John a book)

The demerit – it substitutes the functional characteristics of the sentence-part for the morphological features.

Case – is a morphological category, marked by an inflexion. But in this theory it is rather syntactic function of noun.

2) The theory of analytical case forms (C.Curme)

In this theory more than 2 cases are distinguished. Case relations may be expressed by prepositions.

Ex. With the pen (Instrumental case)

In the table (Locative case – we mean place)

The demerit – if we admit prepositions as a means of expressing cases, the number of cases will indefinitely large as any preposition will express a certain case.

3) No cases in English – the noun has lost the meaning of case (Воронцова, Мухин, Ежкова)

Arguments:

- the apostrophe as inflexion may be edited to a group of nouns (ex. Smb else’s)

H. Sweet: the man I saw yesterday (‘s) son.

- paralism of the constructions with the common case & the genitive case (ex. London streets – more general, London’s streets – more specific /such as/)

- an of-phrase – an equivalent of the gen. case (ex. The face of Irene – речь идет о лице Irene, а не о лице Гали; Irene’s face – именно лицо, а не локоть)

- a partical denoting possession – Мухин.

 

Gender is a lexical category.

No grammatical markers to express gender distinction. Lexical means to express gender distinction:

- pronominal correlation

- correlation with a personal pronoun

- word-composition (man – servant, woman – servant)

- personification (олицетворение). When human properties are ascribed to lifeless things. (she – moon).

 

Билет 9. The category of number and determination

 

The category of number is expressed by the binary privative opposition in which sg is the unmarked member of the opposition and pl is the marked member.

The productive formal mark [z] witch the allomorphs [s] [z] [iz] correlates with the absence of the member suffix in the sg form.

Non productive ways: vowel interchange, archaic, suffix –en, individual sg end pl suffixes in borrowed nouns, homogenius forms.

The destinction between sg and pl rests upon countability. Thus nouns should be classified into countable and uncountable. Sometimes the border line between them lies between the lexico-semantic variants of the noun (e.g. wine – the wines of France).

Uncountable nouns: sg tantum, pl tantum, multitude, collective.

Here the number opposition is lexically reduced to the weak (sg tantum) or strong (pl tantum) member.

The member with uncountable sg nouns can be expressed by means of combining them with words showing discreetness (bit, piece, item)

Uncountable pl nouns (set, group, bunch).

In traditional interpretation of the category there is a number of discrepances:

-s does not always mean quantity, it may express a pair of objects (wings), denote a period of time (3 hours), a distance (3 miles), lexicalized pl forms (colours – флаг).

Исаченко: the essential meaning is not that of quantity but of discreetness (расчлененность).

· Non discreet pl nouns do not have the meaning “more then 1” (3 hours);

· Discreet pl nouns consist of separate not coleseing together (3 books).

 

The category of determination

Article determines the noun in terms of definiteness and indefiniteness of the object. It is expressed by the binary privative opposition.

The – weak member.

a, - – strong (marked in its meaning and form)

In English it is the grammatical category, in Russian – lexical (shows different meanings through word order, demonstrative pronouns.

 

 

Билет 11. The stative

 

Some scholars recognize English statives as a separate part of speech (Виноградов Щерба Хаймович)

Arguments:

1) statives are opposed to adjectives on semantic basis. Adjectives mean quality, statives – state.

2) Statives are characterized by the prefix a-.

3) Statives do not possess the category of degree of comparison

4) The combinability of statives is different from than of adjectives. They are not used as prepositive attributes only predicatively.

 

Traditionally the stative is viewed as a subclass of adjectives (Смирницкий)

Arguments:

1) statives express stative property, a kind of property. Property is the categorical meaning of the adjective.

2) Statives are other adjectives that denote statives but they do not have the prefix a-.

3) Statives do not take the synthetical degrees of comparison but they are capable of expressing comparison analytically.

E. g. he was more ashamed than ever.

4) statives are not used as prepositive attributes but may be used as postposive attributes and as predicatives. Statives=adjective

 

Блох: Adjectives are divided into 1) stative

2) common: a)relative

b) qualitative

 

 

The finitude.

This cat is regarded as a term for finite and non-finite forms of the verbs.

Pr.Barkudarov: this cat is expressed by the primitive binary opposition.

Non-finite forms(verbals or verbids- infinitive, participles and gerund) make weak unmarked member of opposition.

Finite forms make the stong member of the opposition

The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the possessing of f-forms:tense, person, number and other distinctions that give them a possibility to express primary predication. The verbals are unable to express the predicational meanings of tense pers number and mood, they can only express secondary predication in verbal predicative constructions.

This opposition is based on the expression of the function of full predication: ex. He said under his breath, the others are not to hear)(+cм методичку «морфология и синтаксис» стр. 30-о нон-файнат формс)

Non-finite.some scholars don’t contrast f and non-f forms but subdivide verbs according to different standards.

Problems:

1. Of status of non-f v

3 approaches:

· They belong to the system of the verb

· They constitute separate parts of speech(Shahmatov)

· They are high-graded parts of speech, included into adjectival and adverbial system(vinogradov)

2. For modern egnl verbals the most suitable approach is to include them into the verb system, taking into account their semant morphology and syntactic properties.

Semantically they preserve the verbial meaning, common to the other verb forms.

Morphologically they are closer to the verb.(historically they go back to nominal categ

Gerund comes from verbal noun;

Part-from adjective but!in the process of development –to verbs

Syntactically-closer to the verb. Though they share some syntactic functions with nominal parts of speech, they preserve the combinability of the verb and are capable of forming a construction of secondary predication, together with the subject expressed by the nominal part of speech.

 

 

19)Phase as a special verbal category was first distinguished by A.I. Smirnitsky who suggested the term категория временной отнесенности for the verb opposition presented by perfect and non-perfect forms. It is a binary privative opposition where perfect forms are marked formally /to have Partclple II/ and semantically /the mean­ing of priority or precedence/ while non-perfect forms remain unmar­ked. Before that perfect forms were regarded either as tense forms or aspect forms - those views on the problem are held by some gram­marians up to now.

20) So far we have spoken of the ing-forms as of two different sets of homonymous forms: the gerund (with its distinctions of correla­tion and voice) and the participle (with its distinctions of correla­tion and voice). As there is no external difference between the two sets (they are complete homonyms), the question may arise whether there is reason enough to say that there are two different sets of forms, that is, whether it could not be argued that there is only one set of forms (we might then call them mg-forms), which in different contexts acquire different shades of meaning and perform dif­ferent syntactical functions. Such a view (though without detailed argumentation) was indeed put forward by the Dutch scholar E. Kruisinga. In some passages of his book he merely speaks of ""the ing", though in other parts he uses the terms "gerund" and "'participle".

For instance, if in the sen­tence Do you mind my smoking? (where smoking is a gerund) we substitute me for my, in the resulting sentence Do you mind me smoking? the form smoking may, at least, be said to be the par­ticiple. Again, in the sentence Do you mind her smoking? where her may be the possessive pronoun, corresponding to my, or the objective case of the personal pronoun, corresponding to me, the gerund and the participle are practically indistinguishable. We may say, in terms of modern linguistics, that the opposition between them is neutralized. 1

If, on the other hand, we prefer to abandon the distinction and to speak of the ing-form, we shall have to formulate its meaning and its functions in such a way as to allow for all the cases of the mg-forms to be included.

It must be said that this is one of the questions which do not admit of a definite solution. The solution largely depends on what view we take of the unity of a grammatical form and on the extent to which we are prepared to allow for shades of meaning in one form (or one set of forms). If we are prepared to admit any amount of variety in this sphere rather than admit the existence of grammat­ical homonyms, we shall have to develop a detailed theory of the mutual relations between the various shades of meaning that the form (or set of forms) can have.

 

 

21) Formwords. Problems.

I.The number of form words is debatable.

Henry Smith, considers link words to belong to form words as well. He calls them full-form words. He became a king. (became is a form-word. It combines the full meaning of change with grammatical function of the form word is)

There are also empty words: is, the because they are devoid of meaning in the sentence. The earth is round.

Some people think…(some is a notional word) Some give me a pen(functional)

Esperson in his book “Philosophy of grammar” combines adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjections into one part of speech and calls them particles on the basis that they are invariable in the form.

Charles Fries classifies form- words into 15 groups and calls them A, B,….

A) Includes all words in the position of the definite article. The concert was good.(your, some, that…)

B) Words occurring in the position of may in the frame may be good. They serve as markers of the class 2 words. To them belong all modal verbs and some link words(get)

C) Negative particle not

D) All words that occur in the position of very in the frame very good (quite, awfully)

E) All words that occur in the position of and (but, or, nor) that connect words within one sentence.

F) All words that occur in the position of auxiliary verbs (do, does, did)

G) Introductory there in the frame there is

H) Interrogative pronouns and adverbs(why, where, how)

I) All words that occur in the position after which is used as connecting clauses

J) Interjections (oh, well) which stay at the beginning of the sentence

K) Yes, no

L) Attention giving signals: look, see, listen.

M) Please

N) Forms: let’s, let us in request sentences

Frances reduced them to 8 groups.

II. The problem of meaning of functional words. Traditionally they are devoid of lexical meaning. Роговская, Хаймович, Ильиш, Смирницкий think they have.

The cat is on the table / the cat is under the table.

III. Whether functional words are words or morphemes. Traditionally- words.

Бархударов speaks of their due nature. They can be affixes and other grammatical means. Formally they are words because they can change their position and can be extracted from a notional word. Besides one and the same formal word can refer to more than one notional word. With father and mother

 

 

№22

Tha sentence and the phrase are 2 main syntactic units.

The sentence.

There are more than 300 different definituions of the sentence,but not a universal one.

5 approaches to the definition of the sentence:

Logical,psychological,phonetic,graphical,grammatical.

Logical is the most known: “a sentence is an expression of a complete thought,it’s a judgement or a proposotion”.

Blokh: “the sentence is a unit of speech.built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.”

Foreign scholars against this definition,as the meaning isn’t an integral part of a sentence.

Шахматов: a sent.is a psychological phenomena which is expressed grammatically.

Phonetic approach:Paul Roberts::a sent. is a succession of sounds divided into brief groups by pauses required for taking breath”. “-“ of this approach: 1) the sent. can be considered only in oral communication;2)the impossibility to single out a composite sentence because there is a pause in the inner structure ot a composite sentence as well.

Graphical approach::sent. – a succession of words between 2 full-stops”. “-“ of this approach: the sentence may be defined only in writing.

Grammatical. In modern grammar: “ a sent. – is a grammatical unit”. C.Freeze: “ a sent. – a minimal free-utterance”. L.Bloomfield: “a sent. – a free linguistic form,which isn’t a part of any other linguistic form”. Problem is: should a sentence be regarded as a unit of language or speech?

 

The composite sentence is a general term for all types of sentences with more than one predicative line. Composite sentence in which clauses are subordinated to one another is called a complex sentence (сложноподчиненное). Composite sentence with coordinated clauses is termed as a compound sentence (сложносочиненное).

The composite sentence in general is formed by 2 or more predicative lines as different from the simple sentence. Composite sentence is a polypredicative construction which reflects 2 or more elementary situations making up a unity. Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause. This clause corresponds to a separate sentence but is not equivalent to it. Let’s consider the following sentence:

When she entered the hall the party was in full swing.

This sentence includes 2 clauses which correspond to the following sentences:

She entered the hall.

The party was in full swing.

The logical difference between the composite sentence and the sequence of simple sentences is in the purpose of communication. The independent sentences are utterances each expressing an event of self-sufficient significance. The communicative purpose of the sentence discussed is to inform of the fact that “the party was in full swing” and is destroyed in a sequence of simple sentences. Thus, we see that the composite sentence, as a particular structural unit of language is remarkable for its own purely semantic merits, it exposes the genuine logic of events making up a situational unity. The fact proves the unity of the 2 predicative units within the composite sentence.

The composite sentence including no more than 2 predicative lines is called elementary.

Composite sentence displays 2 principal types of clause connection:

hypotaxis – that of subordination and parataxis – that of coordination.

It’s remarkable that the initial rise of hypotaxis and parataxis as forms of composite sentences can be traced back to the early stages of language development, i.e. to the times when the language had no writing. The illustrations of the said syntactic relations are contained, for example, in the old English epic “Beowulf”, dated from the VII c. A.D.

Subordination is revealed between clauses of unequal rank, one of them being dominated by the other. From the structural point of view it means that one clause, the dominated or subordinate one, is in a notional position of the other clause (which is a principal one). It means that a subordinate clause refers to one notional constituent (expressed by a word or a phrase) in a principal clause. From the communicative point of view a subordinate clause renders the information which is additional to that of the principal clause.

Coordination is observed between the syntactically equal sentences, e.g.:Soon he left the house and I followed him.

Ranking of clauses into equal or unequal comes from their relation to one another.

A sequential clause in a composite sentence with coordination refers to the whole of the leading clause. It is due to this fact that the position of a coordinate clause is rigidly fixed in all cases. As for the composite sentences with subordination a subordinate clause usually refers to one notional constituent in a principal clause, e.g.: I would never believe the silly fact that he had been under her influence.

There are two general ways of combining clauses into a sentence. They are syndetic (conjunctional) and asyndetic (non-conjunctional). According to the traditional point of view all composite sentences are classed into compound sentences and complex sentences, syndetic or asyndetic type of clause connection being specifically displayed with both classes.

Thus, the composite sentence is a polypredicative unit revealing 2 or more predicative lines connected with one another by coordination, that is a compound sentence, or subordination, that is a complex sentence.

 

 

Problems

1. The problem of complex members(comp.subj, complex obj)

Pr. Ильиш is against the complex subject (he is seen to enter the room) the splitting of the subj. is strange to English. In his opinion he is the subj. & was seen to enter- a peculiar type of the compoungd predicate

2. The linguistic staters of IT and THERE in personal & existential sentences is problematic! Some scholars say that it,there are part of the subj. роговская, хаймович name them them “secondary subj” in existential sent-s (introductory)

Predicate!!! Problems

1. The problem of a simple nominal predicate. Trad-ly “simple nominal pred”is recognized, but ИЛЬИШ > 2 varieties of it:

a) Pred follows the subj. (my ideas obsolete)

b) Pred preceeds the subj. (splendid game cricket)

Смирницкий speaks about the following types of pred. from the point of view

1) Of the structure (simple, compound)

2) Of meaning (qualificative, objective-I have a lot of friends, adverbial-he is here, process –I can see nothing, double(a blend of process & qualification термин смирницкого) –the snow fell thick)

Curme “ a grammar of English lg”-

1)the predi is expressed by a finite form of complete predication

2) the pred-is ex-d by a verb of incomplete predication + complement! (object or predicative) – man is mortal –

3)finite form+opposition he came home sick

 

Adv. modifier

Sometimes no clear -cut border-line between a prepositional obj. & adv.modifier(he was looking at the door)

иванова > it is a prepos. Obj, if the use of the prep is governed by the verb. If the use of the prep is optional, Then it’s an adv. Modifier

ильиш suggests the term “neutralization “calls them secondary sent parts without further subdivision.

Attribute

Trad-ly they serve to modify nouns & noun-equivalents. Problems:

1) Whether the attr. Is the same synt.level as other secondary sent-members or whether an attr. Is of lower rank,than an obj& the adv.mod

Problems of sentence-members:

1) Whether the sec.sent.members are optional. this approach is based on theory of valiancy (валентности). According to this theory –optional and obligatory valiancy are distinguished.

The obligatory one is as must, necessarily been realized to complete the sentence structurally. In this connection sec.sent.parts are obligatory, if they form the obligatory valiancy of the pred.

The optional one is such as it isn’t necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions.(She wrote me a letter - a direct obj. is marked by the obligatory valiancy –of a lower level than apredicate)

 

Билет 32! Ененко…. One-member and elliptical sentences!

I) 2 member vs one-member (a sentence in which there’s 1 principle part & the other part cannot be supplied without a change in the structure)

Шахматов says that the main part of 1 member sentence is Either the subject Or the predicate! Other scholars call it TheMain Part, As grammatical S. or Pr. Are correlative notions & the terms are meaningless outside their relations to each other (виноградов)

II) complete & elliptical ( a sentence which has1 or both principal members are omitted but can easily restored)

Профессор бархударов considers sent-s of the type @come@ elliptical (not one-member) as they can be traced to full sen-s (“you come”)

Ellipsis: initia l (what’s her name- don’t know), medial (you sure I ‘ve done?) final (who is coming- tom &mary)

Ellipses: textual(in written English) situational(in spoken)

There is a speсiфl kind of ellipses-representation (some, any, each, either а также nouns in possessive case, adj-s, participles, numerals, prepositions) смотри скг, если это надо, или очерки по синтаксису стр 31), and a specific way of sentence elements economy-substitution (one, do &not)

 

III) transitional sen-s (from a simple to composite) встречаются здесь эллиптические предл-я

1)semi-complex: a) with verbless clauses- when a child, he suffered much. B) with detached members – bored, the family went to bed.

2)semi-compound a) with homogeneous S. and PR. – he tore the foto, threw it in the fire b)with a dependant member (conj-s as, but, as though) – she is prettier than you!

 

№33

Transformational Grammar

Kernel & Surface Structure

Surface Str – structure used in speech and generated from Kernel structure be certain derivation rules

The Professor delivers a lecture (Kernel Str à NVN)

· Using some transformation we can get:

- Does the professor deliver a lecture? (but the structure is the same)

· Makes up to the IC analysis:

- John is easy to please

“X” pleases John

- John is eager to please

John pleases “X” (smth)

This Surface Str are different à are of different Kernel Str

Sinclair Harris

- 1) N (pronoun) - V (the team went) 2) - N – V – N 3) - N – V – Prep. N. 4) - N – is – N

- N – is – Adj

Formational rules – are rules which rewuire or allow to perform a certain changes in

the Kernel Str ß Derivational Rules

Types of Transformation

1) T. in simple sentence

2) T. in composite sentence

3) T. in simple as well as in composite

(Transformation of nominalization)

1. In Simple Sentence

· Obligatory

– concerns grammatical categories of a part of speech.

– they are changes of a finite verb

– (transition of aspect, mood, voice)

· Optional

- Transformation on the syntactic level

- Tranf. Changing communicative types of sentences

- Affirmative & negative can be transformed into questions

- The use of an auxiliary verb

2. In Composite Sentence

Compound sentence,Complex,Semi-complex,Semi-compound

Changes:

a) In compounds – sentence with different Subject & Predicate

The man came to the window, the detective saw him

b) In semi-compounds – sentence with homogeneous Subject & Predicate

John smiled & paid money

(transformation of elimination of the subject)

** When the repeated Object in the 2nd sentence is substituted for the Pronoun

We asked for the slides & he showed them to us.

c) Complex Sentence – when Kernel sentences are joined by the means of insertion when one sentence is inserted between compounds of the other

The man is arriving today.

è The man who wished to see you is arriving today.

The man whishes to see you.

 

d) When Sentence may be joined into semi-complex – if they contain a word in common:

I saw him.

è I saw him walking

He was walking.

In simple & composite Sentences à transformation of nominalization – a sentence or a clause may be replaced by a nominal unit.

Demerits of Transposition.

1. The number of Kernel Str is different with different scholars

2. The definition of a Kernel Str isn’t exact usually – the K. Str = is a two – member unextended unit.

 

 

№36 Functional sentence perspective

FSP – actual diversion of the sentences – a special type of discourse (дискурс) analysis concerned with the communicative function of utterance in a given sentence.

It has been noticed that different sentence parts are not identical n their communicative value. As a rule we may distinguish two parts in a sentence from this viewpoint: one part indicating the starting point of the statement, and the other the new information for the sake of which the sentence has been uttered or written.

This method deals with the arrangement of the theme & rheme in an utterance.
The theme – is a part expressing smth known to the listener & a speaker.
The rheme – is a pert containing view info proper.

The theme and the rheme do not necessarily coincide with the grammatical subject and grammatical predicate although the coincidence is not at all excluded as communicative dynamism of the sentence usually increases forwards the end of the sentence.
The door opened and the young man came in vs The door opened and a young man

came in.

 

There are several linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactical) which are used to signal the rheme and theme.

· Phonetic signals include stress, pauses and intonation:
Mary left for ‘London; Mary ‘left for London (different accents underline new

information); “The stairs … opening the door … my surprise that no one was there” (R. Gordon. Doctor in the house) – here pauses between clauses make all of them rhematic.

· Morphologically the rheme and the theme may be signaled by the definite (theme) and the indefinite articles or no article (rheme).
The was a river near the houses vs. The river was near the house.

· Syntactic means include word order and number of different syntactic constructions.

1) New information becomes prominetnt in cases of subject-predicate inversion with opening adverbials: “Here comes the first question ”.

2) W.o. – objectve (the theme preceds the rheme)
subjective (the rheme preceds the theme).

3) Syntactic constructions “ there is ”, “ it is … that ” … (also it is … who, it is … which) serve to point out the rheme: “There are several students in the room”.

4) Complex sentences of the type: “It was his voice that held me”(His voice held me) are termed cleft constructions.

5) As to, as for constructions introduce the theme: “As for aul he is an excellent student ”.

· Lexical means incude:

1) Particles (rheme) such as even, just, only: “ Only he was absent last time”.

2) Demonstrative possessive > rheme.

3) Elliptical sentences > rheme.

 

The theory of functional sentence perspective is in a state of further investigation. Thus, J. Firbas developed the method spoke of 3 fold diversion of the utterance
link word: she turned pale < theme, trasition, rheme
Russia – Слюсарева.
demerit – 1) a 2– fold structure is not always clear
2) the whole sentence may be
a rheme -
He’s a gentleman?
My ideas obsolete.

 

 

Билет № 37

 

There are several linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, morphological & syntactical) which are used to signal the theme &the rheme.

Phonetic signals of theme-rheme division include stress, pauses & intonation:

“The stars…opening the door…my surprise that no one was there”(R.Gordon. Doctor in the house) – here pauses between clauses make all of them rhematic.

 

Morphologically the theme &the rheme may be signalled by the definite and the indefinite articles: cnf. There was a river (R) near the house vs. The river (T) was near the house.

Personal subject pronouns, the demonstrative this & that functioning as subject are usually used thematically:

“He was clever”; “That is evident”.

T R T R

 

There are several syntactic means which signal the T-R division of the sentence. The include word order & a number of different syntactic constructions. New information becomes prominent in cases of subject-predicate inversion with opening adverbials: ”then came the Princess of Wales on his right”; “On the long wall hung a row of Van Goths ”; Here comes the first question ”.

Syntactic constructions “ there is ”, “ it is…that ”…(also it is…who, it is…which) serve to point out the R: “ There are several students in the room”; “it was here that he met her for he first time.” Complex sentences of the type:”It was his voice that held me” (cnf. His voice held me) are termed cleft constructions: “Clefting is similar to dislocation in the sense that information that could be given in a single clause is broken up in this case into two clauses, each with its own verb (D. Biber…Grammar of spoken &written English, p.958).

As to, as for constructions, contrary to the previous ones, introduce the T: “As for Paul he is an excellent student ”, “As to our meeting, it was postponed until next week ”.

 

Lexical means of pointing out THEME & RHEME include some particles such as even, just, only: “ Only he was absent last time”

In linguistic literature we may meet other terms indicating different role of sentence elements in information flow: given/topical vs new information

The theme-rheme arrangement can be applied to the majority of two-member sentences, although there are some purely rhematic and purely thematic sentences as well.

The story of functional sentence perspective is in a state of further investigation. Some points of the theory have been made more precise in course o its development. Thus, J.Firbas in his analysis of English functional sentence perspective came to the conclusion that there may be some intermediate elements between the theme & the rheme, link verbs mentioned among them.

 

38. Substitution and representation.

Substitution - grammatical phenomena when a substitute (prop-word) is used instead of another word, a phrase or a sentence.

It is subdivided into:

1) structural; it’s devoid of a lexical meaning. Introductory IT, introductory THERE, auxiliary verbs

2) lexical (lexico-structural; semantic); prop-words that possess a lexical meaning and a syntactic function. For example: one, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, so (I have done so) – adverb.

 

Representation – a variety of substitution, when a part is used instead of the whole. It’s used to avoid repetition. It’s typical of verb forms.

В репрезентации слово, которое замещает целую фразу, является частью этой фразы и уже там встречалось.

May be used:

Modal, auxiliary verbs, link verbs, YES, I do, NOT (negative particle. Will he come? I think not), TO (particle. Would you like to do it? I’d like to), adjectives (superlatives), nouns (Genitive case), substantivized adjectives (the latter), indefinite pronouns.

 

In general, S. and R. are special kinds of ellipsis (when unstressed words are omitted).

 

Ellipsis may be initial (in oral speech: “Glad you got a job”), medial (more common in AmE: “When you coming back”; are is omitted), final (Who is leaving for London? John and Mary (“are leaving “– is omitted).

Ch. Fries’s Classification of Words.







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