On our place in the cosmos. David Deutsch

URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/david_deutsch_on_our_place_in_the_cosmos.html

Nowadays the idea of Spaceship Earth has a dramatic ring. And the idea there is that outside the spaceship, the universe is implacably hostile, and inside is all we have, all we depend on. And we only get the one chance: if we mess up our spaceship, we've got nowhere else to go. Now, the second thing that everyone already knows is that contrary to what was believed for most of human history, human beings are not, in fact, the hub of existence. As Stephen Hawking famously said, we're just a chemical scum on the surface of a typical planet that's in orbit around a typical star, which is on the outskirts of a typical galaxy, and so on.

Неумолимо; враждебный; испортить; центр; пена; существование; окраина.

Now the first of those two things that everyone knows is kind of saying that we're at a very un-typical place, uniquely suited and so on, and the second one is saying that we're at a typical place. And especially if you regard these two as deep truths to live by and to inform your life decisions, then they seem a little bit to conflict with each other. But that doesn't prevent them from both being completely false.

Рассматривать; предотвращать; мешать.

So let's go out further, till we're outside the galaxy, and look back, and yeah, there's the huge galaxy with spiral arms laid out in front of us. And at this point we've come 100,000 light years from here. But we're still nowhere near a typical place in the universe.

And yet from intergalactic space, it's so far away you wouldn't even see it. It's also very cold out there – less than three degrees above absolute zero. And it's very empty. The vacuum there is one million times less dense than the highest vacuum that our best technology on Earth can currently create. So that's how different a typical place is from this place. And that is how un-typical this place is.

Густой; плотный.

Now how do we know about an environment that's so far away, and so different, and so alien, from anything we're used to? Well, the Earth – our environment, in the form of us – is creating knowledge. Well, what does that mean? Well, look out even further than we've just been – I mean from here, with a telescope – and you'll see things that look like stars. They're called «quasars.» Quasars originally meant quasi-stellar object. Which means things that look a bit like stars. But they're not stars. And we know what they are. Billions of years ago, and billions of light years away, the material at the center of a galaxy collapsed towards a super-massive black hole. And then intense magnetic fields directed some of the energy of that gravitational collapse. And some of the matter, back out in the form of tremendous jets which illuminated lobes with the brilliance of – I think of trillion suns.

Чужой, чуждый; привыкнуть; рухнуть; огромный; доля; струя.

Now, the physics of the human brain could hardly be more unlike the physics of such a jet. We couldn't survive for an instant in it. Language breaks down when trying to describe what it would be like in one of those jets. It would be a bit like experiencing a supernova explosion, but at point-blank range and for millions of years at a time. And yet, that jet happened in precisely such a way that billions of years later, on the other side of the universe, some bit of chemical scum could accurately describe, and model, and predict, and explain, above all – there's your reference – what was happening there, in reality. The one physical system, the brain, contains an accurate working model of the other – the quasar. Not just a superficial image of it, though it contains that as well, but an explanatory model, embodying the same mathematical relationships and the same causal structure.

Едва, почти не; диапазон, размах; предсказывать; воплощать.

So we are a chemical scum that is different. This chemical scum has universality. Its structure contains, with ever-increasing precision, the structure of everything. This place, and not other places in the universe, is a hub which contains within itself the structural and causal essence of the whole of the rest of physical reality. And so, far from being insignificant, the fact that the laws of physics allow this, or even mandate that this can happen, is one of the most important things about the physical world.

Точность; поручать, передавать.

Now how does the solar system – and our environment, in the form of us – acquire this special relationship with the rest of the universe? Well, one thing that's true about Stephen Hawking's remark – I mean, it is true, but it's the wrong emphasis. One thing that's true about it is that it doesn't do it with any special physics. There's no special dispensation, no miracles involved. It does it simply with three things that we have here in abundance. One of them is matter, because the growth of knowledge is a form of information processing. Information processing is computation, computation requires a computer – there's no known way of making a computer without matter. We also need energy to make the computer, and most important, to make the media in effect onto which we record the knowledge that we discover.

Приобретать; распределение.

Our location is saturated with evidence, and also with matter and energy. Out in intergalactic space, those three prerequisites for the open-ended creation of knowledge are at their lowest possible supply. As I said, it's empty; it's cold; and it's dark out there. Or is it? Now actually, that's just another parochial misconception. Because imagine a cube out there in intergalactic space, the same size as our home, the solar system. Now that cube is very empty by human standards, but that still means that it contains over a million tons of matter. And a million tons is enough to make, say, a self-contained space station, on which there's a colony of scientists that are devoted to creating an open-ended stream of knowledge, and so on.

Насыщать; предпосылка; узкий, ограниченный; преданный.

Now, it's way beyond present technology to even gather the hydrogen from intergalactic space and form it into other elements and so on. But the thing is, in a comprehensible universe, if something isn't forbidden by the laws of physics, then what could possibly prevent us from doing it, other than knowing how? In other words, it's a matter of knowledge, not resources. And the same – well, if we could do that we'd automatically have an energy supply, because the transmutation would be a fusion reactor – and evidence?

Превращение; слияние, сращивание, сплав.

So in fact, intergalactic space does contain all the prerequisites for the open-ended creation of knowledge. Any such cube, anywhere in the universe, could become the same kind of hub that we are, if the knowledge of how to do so were present there. So we're not in a uniquely hospitable place. If intergalactic space is capable of creating an open-ended stream of explanations, then so is almost every other environment. So is the Earth. So is a polluted Earth. And the limiting factor, there and here, is not resources, because they're plentiful, but knowledge, which is scarce.

Гостеприимный; способный; изобильный; редкий.

Now this cosmic knowledge-based view may – and I think ought to – make us feel very special. But it should also make us feel vulnerable, because it means that without the specific knowledge that's needed to survive the ongoing challenges of the universe, we won't survive them. All it takes is for a supernova to go off a few light years away, and we'll all be dead!

Уязвимый.

But it depends not on chance, but on whether we create the relevant knowledge in time. The danger is not at all unprecedented. Species go extinct all the time. Civilizations end. The overwhelming majority of all species and all civilizations that have ever existed are now history. And if we want to be the exception to that, then logically our only hope is to make use of the one feature that distinguishes our species, and our civilization, from all the others – namely, our special relationship with the laws of physics, our ability to create new explanations, new knowledge – to be a hub of existence.

Вымирающий; подавляющий.

So let me now apply this to a current controversy, not because I want to advocate any particular solution, but just to illustrate the kind of thing I mean. And the controversy is global warming. Now, I'm a physicist, but I'm not the right kind of physicist. In regard to global warming, I'm just a layman. And the rational thing for a layman to do is to take seriously the prevailing scientific theory. And according to that theory, it's already too late to avoid a disaster. Because if it's true that our best option at the moment is to prevent CO2 emissions with something like the Kyoto Protocol, with its constraints on economic activity and its enormous cost of hundreds of billions of dollars or whatever it is, then that is already a disaster by any reasonable measure. And the actions that are advocated are not even purported to solve the problem, merely to postpone it by a little. So it's already too late to avoid it, and it probably has been too late to avoid it ever since before anyone realized the danger.

Преобладающий; ограничения; катастрофа; предназначать; откладывать.

Now the lesson of that seems clear to me, and I don't know why it isn't informing public debate. It is that we can't always know. When we know of an impending disaster, and how to solve it at a cost less than the cost of the disaster itself, then there's not going to be much argument, really. But no precautions, and no precautionary principle, can avoid problems that we do not yet foresee. Hence, we need a stance of problem-fixing, not just problem-avoidance.

Надвигающийся; меры предосторожности; позиция; (от глаг.) избегать.

If medical science stopped seeking cures and concentrated on prevention only, then it would achieve very little of either. The world is buzzing at the moment with plans to force reductions in gas emissions at all costs. It ought to be buzzing with plans to reduce the temperature, and with plans to live at the higher temperature – and not at all costs, but efficiently and cheaply. And some such plans exist, things like swarms of mirrors in space to deflect the sunlight away, and encouraging aquatic organisms to eat more carbon dioxide. At the moment, these things are fringe research. They're not central to the human effort to face this problem, or problems in general. And with problems that we are not aware of yet, the ability to put right – not the sheer good luck of avoiding indefinitely – is our only hope, not just of solving problems, but of survival. So take two stone tablets, and carve on them. On one of them, carve: «Problems are soluble.» And on the other one carve: «Problems are inevitable.»

Сокращение; множество; заставить, менять направление; подталкивать, способствовать; вырезать; периферийный; неизбежный.

Glossary of the Unit

Ø Ex. 1. Answer the questions:

· 1. What does the author mean by saying that our planet is uniquely suited for our evolution and survival?

· 2. How does the author describe the space outside spaceship Earth and inside it?

· 3. What or who is called by the lecturer the hub of existence?

· 4. Do you agree that inside our spaceship we have all we need?

· 5. What does David mean by ‘messing up’ our spaceship?

· 6. Why is the term ’hub of existence’ voiced by the lecturer?

· 7. How do you understand Hawking’s metaphor of ‘chemical scum’?

· 8. Are we in a typical or untypical place in the Universe? What are your personal sensations?

· 9.What is meant by Spaseship Earth?

· 10. Do you agree that mankind is the hub of existence?

· 11. Would you agree to the term – “chemical scum” for naming mankind?

· 12. So is Earth a typical or untypical place in the universe?

· 13. Docs light or darkness prevail in the universe?

· 14. What kind of vacuum is out there?

· 15. What kind of objects are quasars?

· 16. What kind of similarity is there between the brain and the quasar?

· 17. How do we acquire a special relationship with the rest of the universe?

· 18. In that way is our location in space favourable for developing a specific relationship with the rest of the universe?

· 19. What kind of metaphor docs the lecturer give to specify our reality?

· 20. What can prevent us from building a model of our planet environment?

· 21. What is the role of knowledge for exploring space a improving better conditions for people in the lecturer is opinion?

· 22. What docs survival of mankind depend on?

· 23. Do all species survive?

· 24. What kind of phenomenon is global warning? Positive or negative (in D. Deutsch’s opinion)

· 25. What is D. Deutsch’s view on the measure being taken at the moment for minimizing global warning?

· 26. What kind of stance does the lecturer insist on?

· 27. Is the lecturer optimistic or pessimistic on the issue of the future of our planet?

 

Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:

1. Удивительно, но наша солнечная система и окружающая среда очень точно настроены так, чтобы сохранить жизнь на нашей планете и дать ей эволюционировать.

2. Космический корабль под названием Земля парит в пространстве, которое само по себе неумолимо враждебно ко всему живому.

3. Если верить Стивену Хокингу, люди – всего лишь химическая пена на поверхности типичной планеты, вращающейся вокруг обычной звезды на окраине Вселенной.

4. Вполне может быть так, что обе точки зрения правильные. (It may well happen so that …)

5. Язык не в состоянии описать то, что происходило в момент взрыва.

6. Однако все это произошло так, что миллионы лет спустя на другом конце Вселенной появился орган (человеческий мозг), который сумел смоделировать этот взрыв и восстановить ход событий.

7. По сути дела, наше пространство насыщено веществом и энергией. Создание системы, в которой может проживать человек, – вопрос времени и уровня развития научной мысли.

8. Наша планета является центром Вселенной в том смысле, что в ней отразились возможности, теоретически присутствующие в космосе для создания жизни.

9. В природе виды животных вымирают постоянно.

10. Я не сведущ в проблеме глобального потепления

11. Если какая-то идея не противоречит законам физики, то помешать ее воплощению может только низкий уровень развития научной мысли и больше ничего.

12. Следует признать тот факт, что, для того чтобы противостоять постоянно возникающим угрозам со стороны космоса, нам необходимо совершенствовать систему знаний, а без этого ни планете, ни нам выжить не удастся.

13. Поскольку на сегодня мы можем приостановить процесс потепления только сокращая выброс СО₂ (подписав Киотское соглашение со всеми вытекающими из него ограничениями), то фактически мы живем в условиях надвигающейся катастрофы.

14. Проблема в знаниях, а не в ресурсах. Ресурсы огромны.

15. В данный момент эти исследования не являются основными.

16. По земным стандартам полый куб в безвоздушном пространстве пуст, но на самом деле в нем присутствует несколько сотен тонн вещества (материи), которое можно использовать, чтобы создать самодостаточную научную станцию для проживания группы ученых, занимающихся разработкой системы знаний.

 

 

	Essay writing

 

Composition and essay writing

In a composition, students are expected to set out the facts as they are, the primary objective being their accurate and impartial presentation.

In an essay the task is to give an individual interpretation of facts Thus the interpretation of a subject will differ depending on whether you are required to write a composition or an essay.

 

The reflective and argumentative essays

In text-books on written English, a distinction is often drawn be­tween the reflective and the argumentative essay. The first is primarily an exercise in contemplation upon any given subject, the second – an exercise testing your ability to discuss a problem, to argue for or against a proposition. In the first you rely more on your imagination and power of observation, in the second – on general knowledge.

 

	Use This Sample Basic Essay as a Model

 

The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics, and each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay unless your teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that you can more easily identify them.

v «A dog is man’s best friend». That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companion­ship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they’re not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using re­wards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don’t even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don’t often have «accidents». Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners mus: make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean them­selves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual activities un­til their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat per­sonality. In many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.

 

 

Ex. 3. Speak on the following:

1. How do you visualize Spaceship Earth?

….. is not new. Basically,… appeared

2. Which aspects of keeping up our planet in a proper condition do you personally emphasize?

My stance on…… is …..

I make it a point to …….. I never fail to……. It’s a matter of discipline…….

I make sure that … It should be standard practice to ……….

3. Which other aspects of universal value does the lecturer raise?

There’s nothing wrong in saying ……………..

However,………… It’s an open question whether ……………………..

Ex. 4. Use the clichés to express your stance on the theme of the unit:

It can be confidently said that … … The time is not far off when … …I have every ground for assuming that … I am afraid nobody has the slightest idea concerning … …One cannot help wondering what … … It’s too astonishing for words … …I am stuck for the right word… We might hazard a guess that … …It wouldn’t de too much of a stretch to say that … …

1. AN ARTIFICIAL SPUTNIK OF THE EARTH?

The origin of the Moon is one of the most complicated problems of cosmogony. So far there have been basically three hypotheses under discussion.

HYPOTHESIS I. The Moon was once a part of the Earth and broke away from it.

This has now been refuted by the evidence.

HYPOTHESIS II. The Moon was formed independently from the same cloud of dust and gas as the Earth, and immediately became the Earth's natural satellite.

But then why is there such a big difference between the specific gravity of the Moon (3.33 grammes per cubic centimetre) and that of the Earth (5.5 gr.)? Furthermore, according to the latest information (analysis of samples brought back by the U.S. Apollo astronauts) lunar rock is not of the same composition as the Earth's.

HYPOTHESIS III. The Moon came into being separately, and, moreover, far from the Earth (perhaps even outside the Solar system).

This would mean that the moon would not have to be fashioned from the same «clay» as our own planet. Sailing through the Universe, the Moon came into Earth's proximity, and by a complex interplay of forces of gravity was brought within a geocentric orbit, very close to circular. But a catch of this kind is virtually impossible.

Глина; близость; выгода, препятствие, подвох, захват, улов.

In fact, scientists studying the origin of the Universe today have no acceptable theory to explain how the Earth-Moon system came into being.

OUR HYPOTHESIS: The Moon is an artificial Earth satellite put into orbit around the Earth by some intelligent beings unknown to ourselves.

We refuse to engage in speculation about who exactly staged this unique experiment, which only a highly developed civilization was capable of.

A NOAH'S ARK?

If you are going to launch an artificial sputnik, then it is advisable to make it hollow. At the same time it would be naive to imagine that anyone capable of such a tremendous space project would be satisfied simply with some kind of giant empty trunk hurled into a near-Earth trajectory.

It is more likely that what we have here is a very ancient spaceship, the interior of which was filled with fuel for the engines, materials and appliances for repair work, navigation, instruments, observation equipment and all manner of machinery... in other words, everything necessary to enable this «caravelle of the Universe» to serve as a kind of Noah's Ark of intelligence, perhaps even as the home of a whole civilization envisaging a prolonged (thousands of millions of years) existence and long wanderings through space (thousands of millions of miles).

Каравелла; предвидеть; бродить.

Naturally, the hull of such a spaceship must be super-tough in order to stand up to the blows of meteorites and sharp fluctuations between extreme heat and extreme cold. Probably the shell is a double-layered affair – the basis a dense armouring of about 20 miles in thickness, and outside it some kind of more loosely packed covering (a thinner layer – averaging about three miles). In certain areas – where the lunar «seas» and «craters» are, the upper layer is quite thin, in some cases, non-existent.

Since the Moon's diameter is 2,162 miles, then looked at from our point of view it is a thin-walled sphere. And, understandably, not an empty one. There could be all kinds of materials and equipment on its inner surface. But the greatest proportion of the lunar mass is concentrated in the central part of the sphere, in its core, which has a diameter of 2,062 miles.

Thus the distance between the kernel and the shell of this nut is in the region of 30 miles. This space was doubtless filled with gases required for breathing, and for technological and other purposes.

Корпус, скорлупа, оболочка; жесткий; ядро; арматура, броня, каркас.

With such an internal structure the Moon could have an average specific gravity if 3.3 grammes per cubic centimetre, which differs considerably from that of Earth (5.5 grammes per cubic centimetre).

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