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Territorial differentiation of English word stock.





1) English is an Anglo-Frisian language Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain).

Whatever their origin, these Germanic dialects eventually coalesced to a degree (there remained geographical variation) and formed what is today called Old English. Old English loosely resembles some coastal dialects in what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (i.e., Frisia). Throughout the history of written Old English, it retained a synthetic structure closer to that of Proto-Indo-European largely adopting West Saxon scribal conventions, while spoken Old English became increasingly analytic in nature, losing the more complex noun case system, relying more heavily on prepositions and fixed word order to convey meaning. This is evident in the Middle English period, when literature was to an increasing extent recorded with spoken dialectal variation intact, after written Old English lost its status as the literary language of the nobility. It has been postulated that English retains some traits from a Celtic substratum Later, it was influenced by the related North Germanic language Old Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north and the east coast down to London, the area known as the Danelaw.

The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 greatly influenced the evolution of the language. For about 300 years after this, the Normans used Anglo-Norman which was close to Old French, as the language of the court, law and administration. By the latter part of the fourteenth century, when English had replaced French as the language of law and government, Anglo-Norman borrowings had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English, of which 75% remain in use. These include many words pertaining to the legal and administrative fields, but also include common words for food, such as mutton, beef, and pork. However, the animals associated with these foods (e.g. sheep, cow, and swine) retained their Saxon names, possibly because as a herd animal they were tended by Saxon serfs, while as food, they were more likely to be consumed at a Norman table. The Norman influence heavily influenced what is now referred to as Middle English. Later, during the English Renaissance, many words were borrowed directly from Latin (giving rise to a number of doublets) and Greek, leaving a parallel vocabulary that persists into modern times. By the seventeenth century there was a reaction in some circles against so-called inkhorn terms.

During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period.

2) The role of borrowings in the process of nomination (See Antrushina and other, Chapter 3, p.p.44, Chapter 4, p.p.62 – 67)

3) Kinds of borrowings (See in Antrushina and other, Chapter 4, p.p.68 – 71)

4) Territorial differentiation of English word stock. Dialects and regional varieties

  • International English or World English
  • North American English
  • Mid-Atlantic English
  • South Asian English
  • East Asian English

The expansion of the British Empire and—since WWII—the primacy of the United States have spread English throughout the globe. Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins. The major varieties of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney slang within British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English ("Ebonics") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received Pronunciation in Britain.

Scots developed — largely independently — from the same origins, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute. The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.

Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different accents which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language.Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed using an English base, such as Jamaican Creole, Nigerian Pidginand Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words. Franglais for example, is used to describe French with a very high English word content; it is found on the Channel Islands. Another variant, spoken in the border bilingual regions of Québec in Canada, is called Frenglish

Word origins

One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are Germanic(mostly West Germanic, with a smaller influence from the North Germanic branch) and those which are "Latinate" (Latin-derived, either directly from Norman French or other Romance languages).

Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, is considered definitive by most linguists.

A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) that estimated the origin of English words as follows:

Influences in English vocabulary

Langue d'oïl, including French and Old Norman: 28.3%

Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%

Other Germanic languages (including words directly inherited from Old English): 25%

Greek: 5.32%

No etymology given: 4.03%

Derived from proper names: 3.28%

All other languages contributed less than 1% (e.g. Arabic-English loanwords)

A survey by Joseph M. Williams in Origins of the English Language of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters gave this set of statistics:

French (langue d'oïl), 41%

"Native" English, 33%

Latin, 15%

Danish, 2%

Dutch, 1%

Other, 10%

However, 83% of the 1,000 most-common, and all of the 100 most-common English words are Germanic.

Dutch origin words

Apartheid - from apartheid (via Afrikaans) (="separateness") (meaning: racial segregation)

Boom - from boom (="tree"); cognate to English "beam", German "baum"

Booze - from Middle Dutch busen (="to drink in exess").

Boss -from baas

Brooklyn -called after the town of Breukelen near Utrecht

Cruise -from (door)kruisen (="to cross")

Drill (verb) -from Middle Dutch dril, drille and in modern Dutch drillen

Freight - from vracht

Golf -from kolf (="bat, club", but also a game played with these)

Harlem - called after the city of Haarlem near Amsterdam

Iceberg -probably from Dutch ijsberg (literally ice mountain).

Landscape -from landschap

Leak - possibly from Middle Dutch lekken (="to drip, to leak")

Loafer -from loper (="walker")

Patroon - from patroon (="patron")

Plug - from plugge, originally a maritime term.

Poppycock -from pappekak (=dialect for "soft dung")

Rover - from rover (= "robber")

Rugsack - from rugzak (= "a back worn bag")

Santa Claus - from Middle Dutch Sinterklaas (="Saint Nicholas"), bishop of Asia Minor who became a patron saint for children. (Dutch and Flemish feast celebrated on the 6th of December, the fest of Sint Nikolaas is celebrated in November)

Skate - to skate from schaats. The noun was originally adopted as in Dutch, with 'skates' being the singular form of the noun; due to the similarity to regular English plurals this form was ultimately used as the plural while 'skate' was derived for use as singular."

Slim - "thin, slight, slender," from Dutch slim "bad, sly, clever," from M.Du. slim "bad, crooked,"

Smelt - from smelten (="to melt")

Snack - perhaps from Middle Dutch snakken (="to long" (snakken naar lucht ="to gasp for air") originally "to eat"/"chatter")

Split - from Middle Dutch splitten

Still life - from Dutch stilleven

Stove - from Middle Dutch stove (="heated room"). The Dutch word stoof, pronounced similarly, is a small (often wooden) box with holes in it. One would place glowing coals inside so it would emanate heat, and then put one's feet on top of it while sitting (in a chair) to keep one's feet warm.

Tattoo (military term) -from taptoe (=literally "close the tap"). So called because police used to visit taverns in the evening to shut off the taps of casks.

Trigger - from trekker (Trekken ="to pull")

Tulip - from tulp

Waffle -from wafel

Wagon -from Middle Dutch wagen, waghen (="cart, carriage, wagon")

Yacht - from jacht (=originally "hunt")

Yankee -from Jan Kees, a personal name, originally used mockingly to describe pro-French revolutionary citizens, with allusion to the small keeshond dog, then for "colonials" in New Amsterdam (Note: this is not the only possible etymology for the word yankee. For one thing, the Oxford English Dictionary has quotes with the term from as early as 1765, quite some time before the French Revolution

Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin. Yacht (jacht) and cruiser (kruiser) are examples.

French origin words

Apéritif - before-meal drink

après moi, le déluge - the remark attributed to Louis XY of France; used in reference to the impending end of a functioning French monarchy and predicting the French Revolution. (After me, the deluge.

 

artiste - a skilled performer, a person with artistic pretensions

art nouveau - a style of decoration and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries (usually bears capitals in French: Art Nouveau)

attaché - a person attached to an embassy; in French is also the past participle of the verb attacher (=to fasten)

au pair - a young foreigner who does domestic chores in exchange for room and board

au revoir! -"See you soon!"; lit. Until the next sight. In French contraction of Au plaisir de vous revoir (=to the pleasure of seeing you again).

avant-garde - applied to cutting-edge or radically innovative movements in art, music and literature; figuratively "on the edge", literally, a military term, meaning "vanguard" (which is the deformation of avant-garde) or "advance guard", in other words, "first to attack" (plural avant-gardes; antonym of arrière-garde).

 

B

Ballet -a type of dance

beaucoup - a lot of (slang, such as, " beaucoup money" Especially used in New Orleans, LA {Bookoo})

belle - beautiful woman or girl. Common uses of this word are in the phrases the belle of the ball (the most beautiful woman or girl present at a function) and southern belle (a beautiful woman from the southern states of the US)

bête noire -a scary or unpopular person, idea, or thing, or the archetypical scary monster in a story; literally "black beast." There is no native equivalent English phrase.

bon appettite -have a good appetite

bonjour -hello, used to express a greeting; literally "good day".

bon voyage! -have a good trip!

brunette - a brown-haired girl. For brown-haired boy or man, French uses brun and for a woman brune

bureau -office (British English plural bureaux; American English plural bureaus)

C

cachet - a distinctive quality

café - a coffee shop;

café au lait - coffee with milk; or a light-brown color

carte blanche - unlimited authority; literally "white card"

c'est la guerre! -"That's War!"; or "Such is war!" It is sometimes used as an expression to say that war is harsh but that one must accept it.

c'est la mode. - "Such is fashion"

c'est la vie! -"That's life!"; or "Such is life!" It is sometimes used as an expression to say that life is harsh but that one must accept it.

c'est magnifique! -"That's great!"; literally it's magnificent

chaise longue - a long chair for reclining;

chanson - song

châteaux en Espagne -literally "castles in Spain"; something that exists only in the imagination (as, "castles in the air" or "pie in the sky”

chef d'œuvre- a masterpiece

cherchez la femme -literally "Look for the woman." (expressing the notion that behind a man’s unusual behavior may be his trying to impress a woman or to cover up an affair)

chic - stylish

chignon -a hairstyle worn in a roll at the nape of the neck

cliché - trite through overuse; a stereotype

clique - a small exclusive group of friends; often used in a pejorative way in French

coquette - a flirtatious girl; a tease

commandant - a commanding officer

comme il faut - as is proper; literally as it should be

There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicized; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest.

Лекция 7







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