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ПОЛЕЗНОЕ


КАТЕГОРИИ







Pronoun as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian Languages





 

1. Pronoun as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of pronoun.

2. Personal and possessive pronouns.

3. Reflexive and strengthening pronouns.

4. Demonstrative pronouns.

5. Interrogative and relative pronouns.

6. Indefinite and negative pronouns.

7. Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and Ukrainian languages.

 

Words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building elements, combinability and functions. The peculiarity of pronouns as a class of words is that they are not united by any of the above-mentioned features. True, they have certain grammatical peculiarities, but what unites them is the way they denote reality. Pronouns are words serving to denote substances, qualities, quantities, circumstances, etc. not by naming or describing them, but by indicating them. Pronouns can be defined as words whose meanings are very general and stable, but whose references in speech are particular, variable and relative with regard to the speaker and the situation of speech.

According to Yu.O. Zhluktenko in grammars of both languages there are differentiated the following classes of pronouns: 1) personal (особові), 2) possessive (присвійні), 3) reflexive (зворотні), 4) demonstrative (вказівні), 5) interrogative (питальні), 6) relative (відносні), 7) indefinite (неозначені), 8) negative (заперечні). The class of English pronouns which in some grammars are referred to as generalizing (узагальнюючі) (all, each, every, both, either and others) have a lot in common with such Ukrainian pronouns which are distinguished into the class of defining pronouns (означальні: весь, всякий, сам, кожний, інший etc.). The pronoun сам belonging to this class corresponds in English to the whole class of pronouns which are called strengthening (підсильні) (myself, yourself and others). Besides the mentioned ones in English there are still distinguished the reciprocal pronouns (взаємні) (each other, one another), distinguishing (видільний) (other, another), and indefinite-personal (one) (неозначено-особові) pronouns. The mentioned classes are not distinguished among Ukrainian pronouns by existing grammars.

In his turn the Ukrainian linguist O.D. Ponomariv (with co-authors) presents the following subdivision of Ukrainian pronouns into classes (розряди займенників) in the book “Modern Ukrainian language”: 1) personal pronouns (особові займенники); 2) the reflexive pronoun (зворотний займенник себе); 3) possessive pronouns (присвійні займенники); 4) demonstrative pronouns (вказівні займенники); 5) defining pronouns (означальні займенники); 6) interrogative pronouns (питальні займенники); 7) relative pronouns (відносні займенники); 8) indefinite pronouns (неозначені займенники); 9) negative pronouns (заперечні займенники).

In both languages we differentiate simple, complex and compound pronouns according to their morphological structure (прості, складні і складені займенники). There are no derivative pronouns (похідні займенники) in these languages since affixation is not used to form pronouns both in English and in Ukrainian.

Grammatical categories of pronoun. The category of number is only characteristic of the English demonstrative pronouns (this, that), the differentiatingpronoun (other), reflexive and strengthening pronouns (myself – ourselves).

In Ukrainian the category of number is expressed by demonstrative pronouns (той, цей, такий), possessive pronouns (мій – мої), some interrogative and relative pronouns (який, чий, котрий) and created from them negative pronouns (ніякий, нічий) and indefinite pronouns (деякий, абиякий), as well as in some defining pronouns (всякий, кожний, інший, сам, весь). All the mentioned Ukrainian pronouns also have the category of gender, which is absolutely missing for English pronouns.

The category of case is expressed in the system of English pronouns also unequally. Some part of pronouns have like nouns the common and possessive cases (indefinite, reciprocal, the indefinite-personal and defining pronouns), the rest (personal, interrogative and relative pronouns) have unlike English nouns the nominative and the objective cases (називний та об’єктний відмінки).In Ukrainian pronouns have the same six cases as the nouns.

English personal pronouns are the nucleus of the class. They are: I (me), he (him), she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them). In Modern English personal pronouns have the category of case represented in two-member opposemes. But these opposemes differ from the case opposemes of nouns. The general meaning of “case” manifests itself in the particular meanings of the “nominative” and “objective” cases. As to the category of number, it should be observed that, strictly speaking, personal pronouns have no category of number, I and we or he and they cannot be treated as number opposites inasmuch as they differ from each other not only grammatically, but lexically as well.

According to O.D. Ponomariv Ukrainian personal pronouns are subdivided into two groups: personal and personal-demonstrative (особові та особово-вказівні). Personal include such pronouns as я, ти, ми, ви, personal-demonstrative – він, вона, воно, вони. Ukrainian personal pronouns are declined according to six cases and have two numbers singular and plural. Personal-demonstrative pronouns are also characterized by the category of gender.

Following is the contrastive analysis of personal pronouns in both languages. The number of personal pronouns is similar in both languages. Their characteristics and meanings basically coincide, but the role of personal pronouns in the English sentence is considerably bigger than in the Ukrainian one. Whereas in Ukrainian the person and the number are expressed with the help of endings (читаю, читаєш, читає, читаємо тощо) in English the indexes of the verb's person and number are the personal pronouns (I read, you read, we read and so on). In English we cannot use the verb-predicate without the subject as in Ukrainian, e.g.: “Каже”, “Підходить і питає”, we necessarily should use the pronoun in the function of subject: He says; He comes up and asks.

The personal pronoun they can also be used with the impersonal meaning. In Ukrainian in such cases the pronoun is usually not used, e.g.: they say –кажуть.

The English it is widely used in the function of the formal functional subject (формальний службовий підмет) in impersonal sentences. Here this pronoun loses any lexical meaning, being transformed into a purely functional word, e.g.: it rains “йде дощ”, it is cold “холодно”, it is interesting “цікаво”. In Ukrainian such a usage of pronouns is impossible; they always retain their lexical meaning.

English possessive pronouns are usually treated as adjective pronouns, whereas they are in reality noun pro-nouns or pro-nouns, but they replace only possessive case nouns with which they are correlated. Compare: This is the teacher's (his, her) bicycle. This bicycle is the teacher's (his, hers).

Ukrainian possessive pronouns include: мій, твій, ваш, наш, свій, його, її, їх, їхній. According to their grammar characteristics they are close to adjectives, e.g.: бажаю щастя всім вашим родичам. Possessive pronouns have the categories of gender and number and are declined according to six cases (мій, моє, моя, мої; мій, мого, моєму …).

Following is the contrastive analysis of possessive pronouns in both languages. In both languages they render the belonging and perform the function of attribute or the nominal part of the compound predicate.

The English language has a particular form of the possessive pronoun for each of the mentioned functions: for the attribute – my, his, her, its, our, your, their (the conjoint possessive pronouns), for the nominal part of predicate – mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs (the absolute possessive pronouns – these forms are sometimes used in the role of the postpositive attribute with the preposition “of” – the house of mine).

In Ukrainian when there appears the need to render the belonging of some object to some person, the possessive pronoun свій is used. It is used irrespective of the doer’s person, e.g.: я виконав свою роботу; ти взяв свій зошит; він відкрив свій портфель and so on. In English we do not have the direct correspondence to the pronoun свій and in each case the possessive pronoun of the person who is the doer of the action is used, e.g.: I did my work; you took your book; he opened his bag.

English reflexive pronouns are compound noun-pronouns whose second element -self expresses the anaphoric relation of the first element; that is it shows that the first element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence. In English there are eight reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Similar to possessive pronouns they correlate with personal pronouns. English reflexive pronouns have the category of number and differentiate between the person and “non-person” (compare: himself, herself and itself).

The Ukrainian reflexive pronoun себе indicating towards some person or object does not have the nominative case form, as well as it does not possess the categories of gender and number. It can denote in certain contexts any gender in singular and in plural, replacing all personal pronouns in indirect cases, e.g.: Я знаю себе. Вони знають себе.

Following is the contrastive analysis of reflexive pronouns in both languages. English reflexive pronouns are also used to form together with the verb analytical forms of the reflexive state (аналітичні форми зворотного стану), e.g.: he amused himself “він розважався”. The Ukrainian pronoun себе cannot be used in this function; it is replaced by the suffix - ся. English reflexive pronouns include one more similar by its structure generalizing-personal and indefinite (узагальнено-особовий та неозначений) pronoun oneself. It corresponds to the most general meaning of the pronoun себе or the affix - ся in combination with the infinitive of the verb, e.g.: to defend oneself захищати себе, захищатися.

Strengthening pronouns. The English reflexive pronouns are the homonyms of the similar by their quantity group of strengthening pronouns. In Ukrainian the strengthening function is performed by only one defining pronoun (означальний займенник) сам. It has the category of gender (сам, сама, само) and number (the plural form самі).

In English usually only the pronouns this (these), that (those), such and the same are regarded as demonstrative. Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns той, отой, цей, оцей, такий, отакий, сей (ся, сі, се) and their variants тая, тую, тії, цяя, ції, стільки (нестягнені форми) indicate towards the objects and their qualities. The demonstrative pronoun стільки correlates with the cardinal numeral. In combination with the word самий (той самий, цей самий, такий самий) they not only point towards the object but also identify it.

Following is the contrastive analysis of demonstrative pronouns in both languages. English pronouns this and that have the category of number (plural: these, those) and usually correlate with the modified nouns in number. Other demonstrative pronouns are indeclinable. Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns (except стільки) have the category of gender and number and are declined similar to adjectives.

 

English interrogative pronouns are united by the meaning of an inquiry about some object (what, who), its properties (whose, which, what), place of some event (where), its time (when), cause (why), manner of existence (how).

Ukrainian interrogative pronouns include: хто, що, який, чий, котрий, скільки. They contain the question about a person, an object, some quality, possession and quantity of objects.

Following is the contrastive analysis of interrogative pronouns in both languages. In both languages interrogative pronouns express the question concerning the object (who, what, хто, що), its quality (what, який), belonging (whose, чий), the place it takes among similar to it objects (which, який, котрий). Part of these pronouns correlates with nouns (who, what, хто, що), and others – with adjectives (what, whose, which, який, чий, котрий). In English only one of these pronouns has forms of the nominative and objective cases (who – whom). In Ukrainian all interrogative pronouns are declinable. Pronouns чий, який, котрий have the forms of gender, number and are declinable similar to adjectives.

English pronouns who, what, which, whose, that, where, when, why, how are called “connective” when they serve to connect clauses in complex sentences. In accordance with their meaning and the types of clauses they introduce they fall into two groups: conjunctive and relative pronouns. Ukrainian relative pronouns. If the mentioned above interrogative pronouns join the subordinate clause to the main one, that is perform the function of linking words and correlate with nouns or pronouns of the main clause then they become relative pronouns.

English indefinite pronouns. In grammatical tradition the class of indefinite pronouns is said to include some, any, every (and their compounds something, anything, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone) all, each, either, much, many, few, little, etc., that is words of different lexical and grammatical nature.

Ukrainian indefinite pronouns: дехто, дещо, хтось, щось, хто-небудь, що-небудь, який-небудь, будь-хто, будь-що, казна-що, казна-хто, абихто, абиякий, etc. are built from the corresponding interrogative pronouns by adding particles -небудь, казна-, хтозна-, аби-, де-, -сь. They are used to point towards unknown, indefinite objects and their qualities, e.g.: Хтось задихається над ними – хто це, хто це? (І. Драч).

Following is the contrastive analysis of indefinite pronouns in both languages. The characteristic feature of these pronouns in both languages is the tendency to differentiate the person and the non-person (compare in English somebody, something; in Ukrainian дещо, дехто; щось, хтось). In English the meaning and the usage of pronouns of this class often depends on syntactic factors: pronouns some, any; something, anything; somebody, anybody and others can render the similar meaning in different types of sentences (some and its derivatives – in affirmative sentences, any and its derivatives – in interrogative and negative sentences).

English negative pronouns are no, nobody, nobody’s, none, nothing, neither, nowhere.

Ukrainian negative pronouns include such words as ніхто, ніщо, ніякий, нічий. They are built from the corresponding interrogative pronouns by adding the particle ні- and point towards the total absence of some object or quality. Therefore they possess grammar categories characteristic of interrogative pronouns.

Following is the contrastive analysis of negative pronouns in both languages. Pronouns of this type denote the absence of some object or quality. In both languages they correlate with indefinite pronouns, in English also with the so-called “generalizing” pronouns (all, everybody, everything, both (the meaning of collectiveness), every, each either (the meaning of separateness), and in Ukrainian – with the part of defining pronouns, objecting to the availability of the notion, expressed by the mentioned above pronouns.

Allomorphic classes of pronouns in English and Ukrainian languages include:

English reciprocal pronouns are the group pronouns – each other and one another. They serve to express mutuality, as in They helped each other or (one another), or point out towards the common and reciprocal character of the activity of two or more persons as the subject and the object of the action. In Ukrainian they have the correspondent pronoun word combination один одного.

Ukrainian defining pronouns ( означальні займенники ) увесь (ввесь, весь), усякий (всякий), кожний (кожен), жодний (жоден), інший, сам, самий are used in the sentence in the role of generalizing-qualitative attributes (узагальнено-якісні означення).

English generalizing pronouns (узагальнюючі займенники) include such pronouns as all, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, things, properties and circumstances.

English quantitative pronouns include much, many, (a) few, (a) little, several, enough which may function as pro-nouns (much, many, (a) few, several, (a) little, enough); pro-adjectives (much, (a) little, enough); pro-numerals (many, several, (a) few); and pro-adverbs (much, (a) little, enough).

English contrasting pronouns include other (others, other’s, others’), another (another’s) and otherwise. They are united by the meaning “not the (object, property, circumstance) indicated” and contrast therefore with the demonstrative pronouns.

English indefinite-personal pronoun. The English pronoun one is used with the generalizing-personal (showing that the action refers to any subject) and with the indefinite-personal meaning (which refers the action to some person which is not exactly defined). Being used in the function of subject of indefinite-personal sentences, it performs the function, which is in Ukrainian attached to the forms of the third person plural of verbs (One says … Кажуть …) and to the forms of the second person singular (One never knows … Ніколи не знаєш …).

Lecture 3.1.

Verb as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian Languages:

 

1. Verb as a part of speech: general characteristics.

2. The category of person.

3. The category of number and the category of gender.

4. The category of aspect.

 

The verb is a system of systems. The main division within the English verb system is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-finite verbs (non-finites or verbids). The finites can further be subdivided into three systems called moods (indicative, conditional (subjunctive), imperative). The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are also three systems within the verbids.

In Ukrainian this system is arranged in a slightly different way. The Ukrainian verb includes the conjugated verb forms (відмінювані форми) – the verbs and participles (дієслова та дієприкметники) and non-conjugated verb forms (невідмінювані форми) – infinitives, diyepryslivnyks, and forms ending with -но, -то (інфінітиви, дієприслівники та форми на -но, -то (окрема група пасивних дієприкметників: завдання виконано, лист написано). The subdivision can also be named in another way, that is: personal and non-personal verb forms.

The verb as a part of speech is characterized by the following properties in English and Ukrainian:

1) the lexico-grammatical meaning of “action/process” in both languages.

2) typical stem building elements, such as the suffixes -ize, -en, -ify, the prefixes re-, under-, over-, out-, de-, sub-, mis, un- in the English language;

– typical Ukrainian verb building elements are: suffixes -ти (платити), -ати (запитати), or the combination of suffixes -ува and -ти in derivative verbs (перечитувати, пересилювати); prefixes: -о (оминати), у- (уможливити), об- (обробити), пере- (перебільшувати), ви- (видужати), з- (звузити, знеболити) and the peculiar Ukrainian postfix -ся (недорозвинутися, митися).

3) grammatical categories: out of the six categories of the English verb (the categories of person, number, aspect, tense, mood and voice) three are found not only in the finites, but in English verbids as well. The category of voice (asks – is asked, to ask – to be asked, asking – being asked) is found in all the English verbids, and the that of aspect (asks – is asking, to ask – to be asking) – in the infinitive.

In Ukrainian, grammatical categories of the verb are closely connected with its meaning and its syntactic function. The category of aspect and voice (категорії виду і стану) are characteristic of all verb forms. The category of mood (категорія способу) is characteristic of verbs that can be conjugated (читає, читай, читав би), the category of tense (категорія часу) – of the indicative mood verbs (читає – читав – читатиме), the category of person (категорія особи) – of the imperative and indicative mood verbs (читаєш, читаєте, читай, читайте), the category of number (категорія числа) – of all verb forms that can be conjugated. The Ukrainian language also possesses the seventh grammatical category, that is the grammatical category of gender. Nevertheles this category is used only with the conjugated verb forms of the past tense.

4) its typicalcombinability: a verb can be associated with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the doer (agent) and the recipient of the action expressed by the verb; it is regularly modified by adverbs.

5) its typical syntactic function of the predicate (possessed by the finites only, in Ukrainian by the conjugated form of verbs).

In accordance with their stem structure verbs, like other parts of speech, fall under the following groups:

a) Simple verbs (write, know, love; йти, їсти).

b) Derived verbs (organize, rewrite, purify, underestimate; викорінити, пересилити).

c) Compound verbs consisting of two stems, as in (to) broadcast, (to) whitewash, (to) blindfold. Composition is of low productivity in the class of verbs. In Ukrainian this type of verb formation is also rare, e.g.: благодіяти, боготворити, зубоскалити, хліборобствувати.

d) Composite verbs – made up of a verb with a lexico-grammatical word-morpheme attached to it, as in give up, give in, take off, put on. This way of forming verbs is productive in English but missing in Ukrainian.

Taking into account their formal, semantic and functional properties English verbs are subdivided into standard and non-standard (regular or irregular), notional and semi-notional, subjective and objective, terminative and non-terminative.

The majority of English as well as Ukrainian verbs are notional, that is they possess full lexical meaning. Semi-notional verbs have very general, “faded” lexical meanings, as in be, have, become, seem, can, may, must, etc., where the meaning of 'action' is almost obliterated. Terminative verbs denote actions which cannot develop beyond a certain inherent limit. The actions denoted by non-terminative verbs have no inherent meanings. Compare the two sentences: He was carrying a box on his shoulders.Take this empty box away and bring me a full one.

Objective verbs are mostly associated with two nouns (or noun-equivalents) denoting the subject and the object of the action named by the verb. Subjective verbs are associated only with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the subject of the action. Objective verbs that are connected with their object words directly are called transitive verbs. All the other verbs, both subjective and objective, are called intransitive.

As usual, variants of a verb lexeme may belong to different subclasses. Compare:

He opened the door (objective, transitive).

The door opened (intransitive, subjective).

Add some more water (objective, transitive).

The music added to our enjoyment (objective, intransitive).

The figures would not add (intransitive, subjective).

In Ukrainian there are usually differentiated two groups of verbs: transitive and intransitive (перехідні і неперехідні дієслова: написати листа, розповідатиказку, зеленіти, дякувати).

The peculiar groups of Ukrainian verbs are the so called reflexive verbs (зворотні дієслова) formed with the help of postfix –ся as well as impersonal verbs (безособові дієслова).

***

In the Indo-European languages the category of person serves to present an action as associated by the speaking person with himself/herself (or group of persons including the speaker), the person or persons addressed, and the person or thing (persons or things) not participating in the process of speech. Thus, in Ukrainian it is represented in sets of three-member opposemes such as: читаю – читаєш – читає читаємо – читаєте – читають. Almost all personal forms of Ukrainian verbs (except forms of the past tense and conditional mood) have personal endings of the first, second and third persons of singular and plural. These endings create the system of verb forms: пиш-у, -еш, -е, -емо, -ете, -уть; чита-ю, -єш, -є, -ємо, -єте, -ють; крич-у, -иш, -ить, -имо, -ите, -ать; сто-ю, -їш, -їть, -їмо, -їте, -ять.

In Modern English the category of person has certain peculiarities: 1) the category of person is practically represented by two-member opposemes: speak – speaks, am / is – are; 2) person opposemes are neutralized when associated with the “plural” meaning. in English the category of person has only one formal expression, that is only in the third person singular of the Present Indefinite tense, where the ending - s is added to the verb stem, e.g.: he writes. This verb form is opposed to all other forms which do not have personal endings and so do not express the category of person. Besides, there are several verbs (can, may, must, ought, sometimes also need and dare) which do not have even this ending, and are not conjugated according to the person altogether.

Impersonal verbs (безособові дієслова). In English and in Ukrainian there is a group of the so-called impersonal verbs, which, though can be used in the sentence in the personal form, “denote the action or the state not connected with any doer”, the action which is as though happening by itself. Ukrainian impersonal verbs are never used with the subject, whereas English verbs of such a type are necessarily used with the formal subject, expressed by the pronoun it.

****

The category of number shows whether the action is associated with one doer or with more than one. Accordingly it denotes something fundamentally different from what is indicated by the number of nouns. We see here not the “oneness” or “more-than-oneness” of actions, but the connection with the singular or plural doer. For example, He eats three times a day does not indicate a single eating but a single eater.

The category is represented in its purity in the opposeme was – were in the English language and accordingly in all analytical forms containing was – were (was – writing – were writing, was written – were written). In am – are, is – are or am, is – are it is blended with person. Likewise in speaks – speak we actually have the “third person singular” opposed to the “non-third-person singular”.

In Ukrainian the category of number is expressed in the forms of three pairs of opposition: 1 person singular – 1 person plural, 2 person singular – 2 person plural, 3 person singular – 3 person plural (я читаю – ми читаємо, etc.). The forms of singular and plural are characteristic of the majority of Ukrainian verbs in all three moods – indicative, imperative and conditional. Thus, it can be stated, that in both languages the category of number is tightly connected with the category of person.

***

The English verb does not have any forms which would express some gender characteristics. In Ukrainian the category of gender is expressed only by verb forms of the past tense (брав, брала, брало) and by the conditional mood (взяв би, взяла б, взяло б). In plural in all these cases we have the common form for all three genders (брали б, взяли б). Gender forms are created in both cases with the help of the special suffix - в- (-л-) and gender flexions - а (feminine gender), -o- (neuter gender), zero flexion (masculine gender).

***

The category of aspect is a system of two member opposemes in the English language such as works – is working, has worked – has been working, to work – to be working showing the character of the action, that is whether the action is taken in its progress, in its development (continuous aspect) or it is simply stated, its nature being unspecified (non-continuous aspect).

In Ukrainian it is also a system of two member opposemes represented by the verbs of perfective and imperfective aspects. Verbs having similar lexical meanings often create aspect pairs (видові пари: писати – надписати, читати – прочитати).

Here is a brief enumeration of some groups of verbs usually having no aspect opposites in English:

a) Verbs presenting diverse relations as actions – belong, contain, consist, date, possess, resemble, result, etc.

b) Certain link-verbs (mostly those of “seeming”) such as appear, look, prove, seem, turn out, etc.

c) Verbs of “physical perception” (see, hear, feel, smell), denoting constant properties viewed as actions.

d) Verbs of “mental perceptions” (believe, dislike, distrust, hate, hope, know, like, trust, understand, etc.) which are likewise, verbs of weak dynamic force.

e) “Point-action” verbs, denoting instantaneous acts of very short duration, unless such acts are repeated (burst, jump, drop, pick up, etc.).

Ukrainian verbs of the imperfective aspect have three tense forms: present, past and future, verbs of the perfective aspect – only the past tense form and the simple form of the future tense.

Ukrainian verbs of the perfective aspect (доконаний вид) point out towards certain limits in revealing of the denoted by them action or state, or certain limit in time of their revealing; we as if feel here the beginning and the end of certain action, the certain result either in the form of the past or the future tense (compare: взяти, написати, підрахувати).

Verbs of imperfective aspect (недоконаного виду) express the unfinished character of some action, its durability; they do not show the limits of certain action; also they do not point towards the limits of some action from its beginning to the end even in the form of past tense, but the process of action is stressed here, e.g.: брати, писати, рахувати.

Therefore, the grammatical category of aspect of the English verb is usually revealed by the so called aspect-tense forms (видо-часові форми). Usually there are two basic kinds differentiated: 1) the common aspect (загальний вид, by the terminology used above – non-continuous aspect (нетривалий вид)) expressed by Indefinite verb forms, and 2) continuous aspect (тривалий вид) expressed by Continuous verb forms. Forms of the common aspect render the mere fact of action whereas the forms of continuous aspect point out towards the process of some action, its development. Unlike the Ukrainian aspect, by expression of which a great role is played also by lexical means (word building affixes, usage of different stems), in English the mentioned above aspect forms are formed by morphological means.

Lecture 3.2.







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