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Negotiating the strength of claims ⇐ ПредыдущаяСтр 2 из 2 1.The verbs carry much of the meaning about attitude to findings and strength of claim. •In sentences using that, authors have two opportunities to show how strong they want their claim to be: –in the choice of vocabulary and tense in the main verb; –in the choice of verb tense in the that clause.
What are seven basic principles of writing quantitative information? How to specify the context for the numbers and their units? Seven Basic Principles of Qualitative Writing 1.establish the context for your facts 2.pick simple, plausible examples 3.select the right tool for the job 4.define your terms (and watch for jargon) 5.report and interpret 6.specify direction and magnitude of an association 7.summarize patterns.
Set the context for the numbers you present by specifying the W’s. •Context is essential for all types of writing. •Story must convey “who, what, when, and where,” or what –Without them your audience cannot interpret your numbers and will probably assume that your data describe everyone in the current time and place •Keep track of when a report was issued to establish the date to which the facts pertain. •To include all of the W’s, some beginners write separate sentences for each one, or write them in a stilted list: “The year was 2000. The place was the United States. The numbers reported include everyone of all ages, racial groups, and both sexes. •In practice, each of the W’s requires only a few words or a short phrase that can be easily incorporated into the sentence with the numbers. • Units •An important aspect of “what” you are reporting is the units in which it was measured •There are different systems of measurement for virtually everything we quantify— distance, weight, volume, temperature, monetary value, and calendar time •the British system of measurement— distance in feet and inches; weight in pounds and ounces; liquid volume in cups, pints, and gallons; temperature in degrees Fahrenheit •The metric system— meters, grams, liters, and degrees Celsius, respectively. •Different cultural and religious groups use many different monetary and calendar systems. •Scale of measurement also varies, so that population statistics may be reported in hundreds, thousands, millions, or even billions of people, according to whether one is discussing local, national, or international figures. Quantitative questions typically start with how or what. Some common leading phrases include: How many? How often? How frequently? How much? What percentage? What proportion? To what extent? What is? What are? Here are some quantitative question examples: How many text messages do you send a day? How frequently do you text while driving? How often do you send text messages while at work?
What are criteria for choosing effective examples and analogies? What are the main tools to present quantitative information (numbers)? How to use of technical language and vocabulary in quantitative writing? Choose effective examples and analogies •As accomplished speakers know, one strong intuitive example or analogy can go a long way toward helping your audience grasp quantitative concepts. •The choice of a fitting example or analogy is often elusive. Finding one depends on both the audience and the specific purpose of your example. •For introductory information, a couple of numerical facts gleaned from another source usually will do. •For a detailed scientific report, examples often come from your own analyses and appropriate contrasts within your own data or comparisons with findings from other sources become critical issues. •The main tools for presenting quantitative information—prose, charts, and tables, diagrams – How Many Numbers? – How Much Time? – Are Precise Values Important? •Mixing Tools - a combination of tables, charts, and prose –You might include a few statistics on current unemployment rates in your introduction, a table to show how current unemployment varies by age group and region, and some charts to illustrate 10-year trends in unemployment by age group and region.
•Why Define Terms?: Quantitative writing often uses technical language. To make sure your audience comprehends your information, define your terms, acronyms, and symbols. •Unfamiliar Terms: – abbreviations such as “SES,” “LBW,” or “PSA •Terms That Have More Than One Meaning: –The acronym PSA means “public service announcement” to people in communications, “prostate specific antigen” to health professionals, “professional services automation” in the business world, among 81 other definitions according to an online acronym finder. •Different Terms for the Same Concept: –People from different fields of study sometimes use different terms for the same quantitative concept. For example, the term “scale” is sometimes referred to as “order of magnitude,” and what some people call an “interaction” is known to others as “effect modification.” •Do You Need Technical Terms? –One of the first decisions to make when writing about numbers is whether quantitative terminology or mathematical symbols are appropriate for a particular audience and objective.
Explain the meaning of direction and size of an association between variables? What are three patterns (Generalization, Example, Exceptions) involving many numbers in writing quantitative information? Writing about numbers often involves describing relationships between two or more variables. To interpret an association, explain both its shape and size rather than simply stating whether the variables are correlated. • Direction of Association –Variables can have a positive or direct association—as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable also increases — or a negative or inverse association—as one variable increases, the other decreases. • Size of Association –An association can be large—a given change in one variable is associated with a big change in the other variable— or small—a given change in one variable is associated with a small change in the other.
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