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THE MICROBIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS





The synthetic capabilities of microorganisms are not confined to food, drink and pharmaceuticals. Microorganisms are known also to produce industrial chemicals that can either serve as or be employed to make solvents, lubricants, extractants, adhesives, plastics, surface coatings, explosives, etc. Often an organic substance with industrial applcations can be made either biologically or by chemical synthesis, the decision to make it one way or the other being essentially an economic one. A major consideration proves to be the cost of the raw materials. In microbiological fermentation the chief raw material has been found to be thegrowth substrate, it usually being starch. In chemical synthesis the principal raw material has been found to be petroleum or a derivative of it. The efficiency of the process must be taken into account. Another factor to be taken into account is the cost of recovering the product from the fermentation medium. One must also weigh the potential value ofby-products, and the cost of disposing wastes.Microorganisms are known to produce some 200 substances of commercial value, only a few of them being currently made by biological methods in industry, they include ethanol, n-butanol, acetone, acetic acid, amino acidsand enzymes. Scientists consider microorganisms to havea larger role in many industries. With the new genetic methods the microbiologists and chemists are able to replace an existing pathway with a new one. To put it another way, they can construct organisms that have new characteristics and capabilities. Thus, microbiological fermentation in conjunction with the new techniques could contribute significantly to the production of three broad classes of industrial chemicals: aliphatic organic compounds, amino acids, and enzymes.

Enzymes can catalyze both the making and the braking of chemical bonds. Each enzyme is stated to act only on a particular substrate molecule.

Commercially produced enzymes are playing an increasing role in medical diagnosis.

Microorganisms have been studied thoroughly but still much is to be studied.

 

Ex. 1. Translate the following words and state the suffixes of nouns:

Discovery, variety, various, constitution, productivity, useful, usefulness, vary, consideration, considerable, distribution, important, importance.

 

Ex. 2. Translate the following constructions:

Having examined the substance, they...

They having investigated the substance, the analyst

His investigating these phenomena resulted in...

The scientists having done new discoveries, it was...

The examination of this mixture being carried out, they...

Ex. 3. Analyse the "ing"-forms and translate the sentences:

1. Copper being a good electrical conductor, they usedit in their experiment. 2. Like all soluble aluminium salts, the sulphate is readily hydrolyzed, yielding both aluminium"hydroxide" and a solution which is acidic. 3. As a result of one reaction decreasing in velocity while the other is increasing, a point presently is reached at which the two reactions are proceeding at the same rate and the products of each reaction are being used up at the same rate at which they are formed. 4. The temperature increased, the heatbeing evolved. 5. The solution obtained, we could begin carrying out our experiment. 6. A steel containing some metallic element other than iron and carbon is generally known as "special steel". 7. Large amounts of hydrogen are used in industry in converting oils into solid fats. 8. Manynuclear reactions result from interacting of nuclei and neutrons. 9. Using only very small quantities of the substance, she succeeded in obtaining a considerable amount of information about the chemical properties of the elements. 10. Mercury may be purified by washing it with dilute nitric acid.11. They were using this substance in their experiment several times. 12. While examining the properties of this metal pay attention to its melting point. 13. Upon being heated the oxide changes into the red modification. 14. Being lower than hydrogen in the activity, mercury does not displace hydrogen from solutions of the acids. 15. His having created this new machine soon became known to everybody.16. All nitrates decompose upon being heated and hence serve well as dry oxidizing agents.work must be very accurate.

Ex. 4. Find the sentences in which "that", "those" substitute nouns:

1. Before this discovery, it had been supposed that specific composition and formula could represent only one substance. 2. The density of ice proved to be lower than
that of the liquid. 3. The volume of steam has been found to be many times that of liquid water. 4. The energy liberated by the complete disintegration of lg of radium intolead is equivalent to that obtained by the combustion ofmore than half a ton of coal. 5. The range is greater for atoms of even atomic numbers than for those of odd numbers.6. This review reveals that all atomic nuclei are believed to contain protons. 7. The neutron cannot be accelerated byuse of the electric machine, but slow-moving ones appear to be more effective than are those of greater speed. 8. Germanium resembles silicon in that it forms several unstable hydrides. 9. Vessels made of platinum-rhodium alloy areeven less susceptible to loss of weight on heating than are those made of platinum alone. 10. They had to use those vessels, which were less susceptible to loss of weight on heating. 11. We make use of the heat energy that is evolved when wood and coal change into gases and ashes to heat our homes and to provide power for industry. 12. Chemical research today is proceeding more rapidly than that before. 13. Theseare a number of substances that absorb moisture.

 

Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold type:

1. Changes involving identical materials prove to produce the same results. 2.The results of our investigation are surely to be correct. 3. This new element is known to have been discovered as a result of great experimental activity. 4. No solution will result from mixing two immiscible liquids. 5. It is now believed that complex ions result from the sharing of electron pairs by the simple ion and the ions or molecules, which become attached to it. 6. Great results in different fields of science have been achieved recently. 7. Disintegration will continue through a number of expulsions until a stable nucleus results.

 

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences, mind the Passive Infinitive:

1. This research work can be carried on in our new laboratory. 2. The production of consumer goods must be greatlyincreased next year. 3. This canal is known to have beenbuilt last year. 4. We know the new buildings of our Institute to be built in two years. 5. They expect this investigation to be carried out by young engineers. 6. This problem should be solved by the end of this month.

 

 

Ex. 7. Analyse the following pairs of sentences, translate the sentences:

I. Having constructed a new powerful chemical accelerator, they could start their work. A new powerful accelerator having been constructed, they started their work.

II. The electric computer simplifying greatly the calculations, it is much easier now to find out all the properties of new substances.

The electronic computer simplifying the calculations has been used in our laboratory.

III. A metal and non-metal combining transfer of electrons occurs with the formation of an ionic crystal. A metal combining with a non-metal was investigated
in our laboratory.

 

Ex. 8. Translate the following nouns:

Rapidity, solubility, direction, absence, simplicity, investigator, investigation, variety, definition, involvement, difficulty, relation, length, strength.

 

Ex. 9. Translate the following sentences, mind the verb forms:

1. Having examined the properties, they could continue their work. 2 Examining the static properties of molecules helped them in their work. 3. The properties examined by the electronic computer were very important. 4. The computer employed in our laboratory, was very good. 5. The computer having been employed, they could finish their work in time. 6. Employing the computer, they could make very important calculations.

Ex. 10. Translate the following sentences, mind the tensesof the Predicate:

1. For nearly a century the scientists working with food have been trying to understand more fully the role of microorganisms in fermentation. 2. The rising cost of petroleum has made the product less competitive. 3. The introduction of microbiology into the pharmaceutical industry has brought about a transformation profound enough to be called a revolution. 4. They have been working at the problem involved since 2012, but still much is to be done. 5. Recently, it has become widely accepted to use this technique in determining the weight of some substances. 6. This view of conservation laws has been radically changed by the development of the modern theories of elementary-particle interraction. 7. He had been carrying out the experiment for two hours when I came into the laboratory. 8. They have been working out the new procedure for at least a month, they will have to begin their experiments. 9. A great number of foreign scientists have visited our laboratory as it is considered to be the best one in our Research Institute. 10. A lot of workers have been attending these courses to get acquainted with the new methods of producing some products from different chemicals. 11. Our chemists have solved a great number of urgent problems in the field of environmentalprotection lately. 12. I was asked how long I had been working at that plant. 13. The new apparatus had already been installed in our shop by the end of November. 14. The work hasn't been finished yet, we have to continue experimenting.

 

Ex. 11. Translate the following sentences into English, mind the use ofthe tenses:

1. Він відвідує лекції з хімії з вересня. 2. Він відвідав кілька лекцій з вересня. 3. В минулому роцівін відвідав кілька лекцій по загальній хімії. 4. До грудня він провів цілу серію експериментів. 5. Коли я почав роботу, він вже закінчив експерименти. 6. Він вивчає фізичну хімію вже три роки. 7. Нещодавно ми відвідали виставку «ХІМІЯ-2016». Вона справила на нас дуже велике враження. 8. В минулому році ми відвідали ряд хімічних заводів. 9. Коли я увійшов у лабораторію, він вже проводив дослід протягом години. 10. Коли я увійшов до зали, доповідач говорив про розвиток хімії полімерів в нашій країні.

Ex. 12. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Subjunctive Mood and Adverbial Clauses of Condition:

1. Free silicon might be expected to be produced both inaboratory and in industry. 2. This question couldn't be answered with certainty if you didn't carry out a number of investigations. 3. If this research had been done earlier, the role of this element would have been clear. 4. This element could be predicted if you knew the properties of the other elements. 5. Were all the properties known, it would be much easier to use this element. 6. Nitrogen itself is known to be inactive. If the atmosphere contained much more than the normal amount of it, the chemical activityof the oxygen, an active ingredient of air would be too much retarded. 7. Had the laboratory been repaired in time, we should have finished our research much earlier. 8. It wouldbe interesting to find out all the properties of these elements. It is necessary that all the properties of these elements be investigated before we start experiments.

 

Ex. 13. Translate into English using Subjective and Objective Infinitive Constructions:

1. Відомо, що останнім часом фармацевтичнапромисловість значно розвинулася. 2. Було встановлено, що етанол є одним з найбільш важливихорганічних хімікатів у цій промисловості. 3. Мизнаємо, що ця стаття присвячена розвитку мікробіології в нашій країні. 4. Виявилося, що вартість виробництвацих речовин дуже велика. 5. Відомо, що наукові співробітники нашого інституту провели серію експериментів, використовуючи органічний розчинник бутанол, і отримали гарні результати. 6. Цей метод, мабуть, старий і не дає гарних результатів 7. Вони знали,що досліди були закінчені і результати були задовільними. 8. Виявлено, що з промислових кислот оцтова кислота є найважливішою. 9. Цей розчинник, мабуть, не може бути використаний в нашій галузі. 8. Виявлено, що з промислових кислот – оцтова кислота є найважливішою. 9. Цей розчинник, мабуть, не може бути використаний в нашій галузі.

Ex. 14. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the meanings of the word "provide":

1. The steel may be provided with the desired degree ofhardness depending on the temperature to which it is reheated.2. To provide the laboratory with necessary equipment much money should be spent. 3. Our new laboratory is provided with gas and running water. 4. The materials provided by nature can no longer satisfy the rapidly developing technology. 5. The mass spectrum can be used to provide unique information concerning the molecular structure of some unknown compounds. 6. This type of information provided by this technique is new. 7. They will apply these new methods provided they are effective enough.

 

 

Text B

POLLUTION

Pollution is known to be of great concern to both science, industry and to humanity as a whole.

There has always been pollution, even when man was not present. When man appeared upon earth, he added much to the pollution. As the population of man on earth increased, pollution increased too, it being increased in three waysthrough the numbers of persons, through the industrial activity, and through man's use of devices such as automobiles that cause pollution. One of the most important tasks tobe solved is air pollution. All countries are currently spending great sums of money on environmental protection.

The study of pollution could be divided into three main parts: pollution of the air, of water and of the land mass. To study this problem is very important for man.

Air Pollution

Every smoking chimney turns out to be a source of air pollution. Home furnaces tended to; burn soft coal incompletely, thus adding unburned carbon particles to the air.

The use of natural gas or oil that have a negligible mineral content is of great help in reducing pollution, but hasthe disadvantage of rapidly consuming materials, whichcould better be conserved for future generation as raw materials for the manufacture, for example, chemicals and plastics.

It has been found that some chemical processes, such asthe manufacture of lime, Portland cement, steel, tend togive off much dust.

Lead, bromide and chloride emitted from the exhaustof automobiles which burn lead-containing gasoline produce a lead-chloride-bromide aerosol which is consideredto be a common air contaminant in urban areas, it beintoxic to people. The chief atmospheric gaseous pollutants originating from the earth's surface appeared to be oxidesof sulphur, oxides of nitrogen, incompletely burned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.

These gases are known to react with energy from sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Smog not only can be highly irritating to eyes and lungs, but it can also cause extensive damage to vegetation? There are many problems to be solved concerning the pollution of air.

Water Pollution

Some cities simply run their raw sewage directly intonearby natural waters. This is one of the worst types of water pollution. Another type of pollution of sea and ocean water is petroleum oil, it taking place in connection with off-shore drilling operations. It should be also noted that unfortunately there is yet no satisfactory method of overcoming the effects of oil spills, although many methods have been tried.

Earth Pollution

In addition to air and water, the solid part of the earthis also in danger from pollution. Solid wastes include such things as: metal cans, glass bottles, plastic containers, ashes from the combustion of coal and wood, and radioactive isotopes. The problems created by pollution are very difficult, but fortunately, great progress is being made in their solution.

The atmosphere over cities is the object of constant care and attention on the part of the government. Each year steps are taken to improve the protection of the atmosphere from harmful factory pollution.

Hundreds of new devices trap and neutralize the harmful substances contained in discharged gases go into service. As a result, in more than 70 per cent of cities where theair monitored, discharges of dust, sulphur gases andhydrogen sulphide were either stabilized or reduced altogether, harmful industrial pollution of the air of cities and industrial centres having been greatly diminished through out the country.

Extensive measures are being taken to set up reservations and carry through biotechnical measures for the protection and reproduction of species of animals, birds and valuable fish.

Much money is being spent, but it should be noted that money alone is not enough to protect the environment. The attitude of people is vital and much depends on the people.

There will never be complete success unless human beings are taught to use nature with care.

 

Ex.15. Translate the following word combinations, mind the Participles II:

The method involved was; the experiment spoken of is;the lecture followed by the experiment took place; the datareferred to must be; the report resented involved somedata; the figures summed up resulted in; the book translated consisted of 2 parts; the work done helped greatly;the ore found contained; the solution used is to be heated.

Ex.16. Translate the following sentences, mind the Infinitives:

1. The copper to be used must be pure. 2. The metal isto be used in our experiment. 3. To use this solution wehave to heat it. 4. To use these figures is to complete thiswork. 5. The method seems to be useful in this work. 6. Thework done proves to be of great importance. 7. They found this substance to melt at a low temperature. 8. The application of zinc is known to be important in heavy industry.9. Zinc is known to be a silvery white metal. 10. This metal appears to be readily dissolved by most mineral acids.

Ex.17. Translate the following sentences:

1. The problem to be solved deals with environmental protection. 2. Some chemical processes to be consideredwere of great importance. 3. Raw materials to be used for manufacture of some chemicals can be obtained in this region. 4. The discovery to be made in the field of nuclearphysics was of great value. 5. The substances to be purified should be carefully treated. 6. The lecture to be followed by the experiment was devoted to pollution. 7. The figures to be referred to should be arranged in the table.

Ex.18. Translate the sentences with Conditionals:

A. 1. Would you like to come with us? 2. Would you be so kind as to tell me how to get to the Red Square? 3. Could you tell me the way to the main building of the University? 4. Would you mind giving me your dictionary for a minute? 5. Would you be kind enough to pass me the text-book? 6. I'd like to thank you for your help. 7. He'd like to meet you.

B. 1. You are the only person she would listen to. 2. The material in that book is very much out of date. The book must have been written a long time ago. 3. He speaks English well. He must have lived in the United States for a long time. 4. You could have done it in a different way. 5. It's strange he is not here. However, he might have forgotten all about it. Or he might have come while I was out. 6. For long journeys in private cars one could use automatic guidance systems. 7. One laser beam could carry all the radio, TV and telephone messages simultaneously.

C. 1. Mary wishes she could drive a car. 2.1 wish that, for just a day, I were President of the United States. 3.1 wish I had not spent so much money yesterday.
4. I wish when a boy I had studied French instead of English. 5. John wishes he had been a mechani­cal engineer. 6. I wish I had a car. 7. I wish you had mentioned this fact to me before.

D. 1. If he were better educated, he would get the job. 2. Were I you, I should speak to him about it. 3. I would have called you if I had had your telephone number. 4. Had she felt better, she would have gone with them. 5. If you watched a laser operate, you might be surprised at the simplicity of a device capable of such power. 6. «If I had had a chance to live my life again, I should have tried to combine the study of the history of art, philosophy and science.» «But then you wouldn't be good at either.» «No, you are probably right, I'd be a dilettante.»

E. 1. K. Onnes found that it was necessary that a mercury wire be cooled to
–265°C for electrical resistivity to disappear. 2. Tsiolkovsky proposed that liquid propellants should be used for space travel. 3. Recently it has been improbable that superconductivity should appear at an unbelievable temperature of 98 К in a special ceramic material. 4. The great speeds and high resistance of air demand that new hyperliners be built without windows. 5. It is essential that a superconductor should be a solid material and it is necessary that it should be cooled to –273 °C. 6. It was natural for the ancient Greeks to suppose that the stars, planets, the sun and the moon move round the Earth in space. 7. It is possible that a compound should become a superconductor even if the chemical elements constituting it are not. 8. Copernicus suggested that the Sun and not the Earth should be at the centre of everything.

 

 

ADDITIONAL TEXTS







Система охраняемых территорий в США Изучение особо охраняемых природных территорий(ООПТ) США представляет особый интерес по многим причинам...

Что делает отдел по эксплуатации и сопровождению ИС? Отвечает за сохранность данных (расписания копирования, копирование и пр.)...

ЧТО ПРОИСХОДИТ ВО ВЗРОСЛОЙ ЖИЗНИ? Если вы все еще «неправильно» связаны с матерью, вы избегаете отделения и независимого взрослого существования...

Что делать, если нет взаимности? А теперь спустимся с небес на землю. Приземлились? Продолжаем разговор...





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