Билет 12. The pronoun, classes of pronouns, their general characteristics.

Боркударов: it occupies the intermediate position between notional and functional parts of speech. Pronouns have an inconsistent meaning. They do not name either things or qualities or properties but point them out. Pronouns have a certain meaning only in a concrete situation on the bases of their lexical meaning, morphological characteristics and syntactical function.

Pronouns are traditionally recognized on the bases of indicatory and substitutional semantic functions. They function substitutes (replace nouns), determines.

1) pronoun as a part of speech. Not all scholars recognize the pronoun as a separation part of speech. Some – refer partially to nouns, some to adjectives, some to numerals.

2) If we single it out as separate, is it notional or functional?
Traditionally it is notional, it has its lexical meaning as it denotes some extra linguistic reality and is correlated with some concepts.
but not all pronouns correlate with concepts (this…), some – function in the sentence as structural parts of speech.
E. g. give me the book. Give me this book.

3) The number of subclasses of pronouns is debatable.
negative pronouns – a separate subclass or subclass of indefinite pronouns.
such – indefinite or demonstrative.
Ильиш does not discriminate reflexive and emphatic pronouns. He calls them self pronouns.

4) Heterogeneous character of pronominal categories.
some pronouns have the category of person, some – case

Блох does not distinguish the nominative and the objective system as the forms are not regular forms of productive morphological characteristics, but individual forms sustained by suplitivity and given as a ready – made set. Possessive pronouns are treated by him as possessive forms of personal pronouns. So, he introduces a lexical paradigma series of 4 subsets of personal pronouns to which the relative who is also added.

Ильиш restricts the classes of pronouns possessing number distinctions to demonstrative and indefinite.

Personal and reflexive do not have the category because I, we are separate words, not sets of forms

Adverbs are words that modify qualities(deeply anxious) and processes(laughed gaily).

The adverb is characterized by combinability with verbs, adjectives, words of adverbial nature.

-qualitative (express immediate non-graded qualities of actions (adverbs in –ly)

1)qualitative-quantitative (intensifiers, adverbs of excessive degree (surprisingly), of moderate

The problem of the status of postpositional elements: to give, to set up, to get on. The function- to give an additional aspective meaning to the verb or to introduce a lexical modification of the original verb meaning.

1) Профессор Смирницкий, Palmer treat them as variety of adverbs.

2)Профессор Амосова- as preposition-like functional words (prepositions)

3) Профессор Жлустенко(?): prefix-like suffixes similar to the german separable prefixes.

4)Проф. Ильиш: special set of elements intermediate between words and morphemes.

Verbs express actions and states. The verb is a notional part of speech possessing the categorical meaning of process, action or state, the forms of the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood.

Verbs play the central role in the expression of predication: the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality.

The combining power of the verb: semantic valency – obligatory/ optional. The subject and the object are obligatory valency partners. The adverbial valency of the verb is optional.

Tense is a grammatical category of the verb indicating the time of an action. The main divisions of time- present, past and future, are represented in English by the primary tenses: simple present, simple past and simple future. (absolute tenses)

Secondary tenses- perfect forms- show that the action is related to some other action in the present, past or future.(relative tenses)

1) the status of future tenses is debatable. Отто Есперсон, Бархударов, Palmer deny the existence of the future tense forms. In their opinion shell/will preserve the original modal meaning and the forms with shell/will can not be treated as analytical tense forms but free word combinations.

1)shell/will are modal verbs. The constructions shell/will+infinitive are not different from constr. Must/can + inf. Modal meaning is always present in them because the meaning of future is inseparable from modal meaning. The action in the future is always viewed as desirable, problematic, hypothetic, possible, but not real.

2) the meaning of future is not always expressed with the help of this construction. There are other constructions to show it (is leaving)

3) they are not always forms of the verb, because the future meaning inherent in the modal

4) the existence of the form future in the past, where one categorical form expresses 2 grammatical forms (the meaning of the past/future). The conclusion is that in English there are different means of referring the action to the future, but there is no special categorical future form, consequently the opposition is presented by 2 forms: past/non-past.

Профессор Смирницкий, Ильиш say that in the sentence “I’m sorry, I’m afraid I will have to go back to the hotel” will is not a modal verb but an auxiliary verb, a part of analytical future tense form.

1)Traditionally the category of perfect is a tense category, which should be placed in the same list as other tense forms.

2) the category of perfect is a particular aspect category and it should be placed in the list comprising the common aspect and the continious aspect (Проф. Воронцова)

3) The category of perfect is neither one of tenses nor one of aspects but a specific category different from both which are called the category of time rrelation. Профю Смирницкий calls it the category of time relation. Foreign scholars (Smith) – the category of phase. Проф. Ильиш – the category of time correlation. This category is expressed by the binary privative opposition. The non-perfect form is the weak (unmarked) member.The perfect form- the strong member. The meaning of the category is that of priority or precedence and that of correlation.

4) the category of perfect is the category of order (Проф. Хаймович, Роговская). The past simple represents an action as irrespective of other past events whereas the perfect form indicates that this action precedes some other event or point of time.

Some scholars suggest establishing the new grammatical category – The category of posteriority- категория следования за. In this category the opposition is present. The action following the moment of speech (Will go) is opposed to the action following the moment in the past (would go). Проф. Смирницкий is of different opinion: future in the past, future simple are not tense forms but mood forms.Проф. Иртемьева proposes to divide the system of tenses into 2 halves:

She speaks about independent tense forms (indefinite absolute tenses), dependent tenses (future perfect, future in the past). They do not correlate with the moment of speech.

Проф. Корсаков establishes a system of absolute and anterior and of static and dynamic tenses. By dynamic tenses he means what we call tenses of the continuous aspect and anterior-perfect correlation.

Aspect shows the a way or manner in which an action is performed. There are 3 main points of view:

1) Traditionally (Смирницкий, Ильиш, Бархударов) it is expressed by a binary privative opposition. Common aspect is the weak unmarked member, the continuous aspect – the strong marked member. The continuous aspect denotes duration, limited character of the action.

2) Отто Есперсон, Henry Sweet, Иртемьева do not recognize the existence of the continuous forms as aspect forms and consider them to be tense forms. Отто Есперсон thinks that aspect characteristics should be expressed synthetically. Since there are no synthetical forms denoting the way or manner in which an action is performed continuous forms are expanded tense forms (расширение временных форм). In his opinion they have not duration as such but relative duration in comparison with limited duration of the other action(he was rising his hand to strike her when he stopped short)

3) Some scholars interpret aspect as a category of semantics rather than that of grammar and try to define aspect characteristics of verbs on the basis of their lexical meaning. This approach studies the so called actions art(?) (способ действия)-lexical and derivational means showing the character of the action rather than aspect itself. Kruisinga distinguishes several types of lexical character of the verb: momentary (?), durative, frequentative (fiddle-fiddle). Повторение корня, inchoative. Max Deutschbein distinguishes introspective aspect (I am writing) and prospective (I am going to write)

Too many aspects are singled out and one and the same form may express different aspect characteristics.

Проф. Иванова recognizes the continuous aspect, but rejects common aspect. In her opinion some finite forms of the verb have the category of aspect. They are aspect tense forms (видо-временные формы), while other have no aspect, they are purely tense forms (indefinite forms)

It’s a special verbal category which indicates the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker(acc. To V.V. Vinogradov) this category is the most controversial. Different scholars find from 2 to 16 mood forms in present day English.

The opposition within the category of mood is presented by verb forms indicating actions as:

The most popular classification of the subjunctive mood indicates 4 forms(acc to A.I. Smirnitsky):

There are no special forms of the oblique moods in modern English where unreal actions r expressed by the indicative mood forms.” English has no special conditional forms but uses tense to distinguish real and unreal conditions”

It indicates the relation btw the subject and the action. In modern English it’s represented by the opposition:

1. Active(does did….)- an unmarked member of the opposition either in form(active voice forms are heterogeneous) or in meaning(the subject of the act voice constructions may denote the thing that acts and conveys a number of other meanings as well which is evident fr the foll examples: ex. He suffered pain. He washed and sat down to breakfast.

2. The passive voice(is done, was done…..)- a marked member in form(to be +part. 2) and in meaning(the subj is always acted upon)-traditionall

1. At various times the following 3 voices had been suggested:the number of voice forms is debatable.

2. The reciprocal-ex. They greeted each other(обоюдное действие)

3. The middle voice- ex. The door opened vs he opened the door.- the process is going on on the subject itself so the active form is combined with the passive meaning.

Ilish: in some usage self-pronouns are not sentence parts, they are auxiliary words.but such a usage isn’t observed regularly. The same can be said about each other.

2.the status of combination –to be +part 2.whether in all cases it is treated as a passive voice forms. The idea of state is not incidental here but the result of lexical meaning of the verb and the context.(ex.the door was closed-to be-link verb +part 2 –a predicate)-a compound nominalpredicate.

Vorontsova: the passive voice expresses either an action In development or an action a san accomplished fact.

Ex. He became offended. Pr. Purson treated it as a passive voice form. But! Pr. Хаймович is against such an approach as get/become reserve their own lexical meaning.

!the binding argument in favor of a 2 voice system: the voice should be necessarily expressed by the verb forms and not by words referring to nominal parts of speech(pronouns ….)

Sometimes to modern English passive constructions are homonymous with nominal predicates: ex. The door was shut at 6 when I went by but I don’t know when it was shut.

The cat of person should be defined as an equipollent (tertiary) opposition as it’s members are logically equal.

Pr. Bloh: in the present tense the expression of the cat of person is divided into 3 peculiar subsystems:

1. Includes the modal verbs that have no pers inflexion(can may dare need must shall will ought0

2. Is made up by a unique verbal lexeme be.(am-for 1^st sg, is-for 3d sg, are – neither 1^st nor 3d and it can’t be taken for the specific positive mark of the 2^nd coz it coincides with the plural all-person(equal to non-person)marking.

3. Occupies the medial position of the 2 first: the personal mark is confined here to the 3^rd sg-(e)s, the other two (the 1^st and the 2^nd) remain unmarked ex. Comes-come, stops-stop…..

· Reflexive cat of the verb(отражающая): the personal and numerical semantics in the finite verb is the reflexion in the verb lexeme of the person and number meanings of the subject. The number of the noun is numerical and is imment(присущая) characteristic of the noun. It means we can number nouns.-ex. Table-tables

· The oppositional reduction of cat of pers and numb: ex. I arrived-Jack came- no markers of the person or number.

Non-finite forms(verbals or verbids- infinitive, participles and gerund) make weak unmarked member of opposition.

The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the possessing of f-forms:tense, person, number and other distinctions that give them a possibility to express primary predication. The verbals are unable to express the predicational meanings of tense pers number and mood, they can only express secondary predication in verbal predicative constructions.

This opposition is based on the expression of the function of full predication: ex. He said under his breath, the others are not to hear)(+cм методичку «морфология и синтаксис» стр. 30-о нон-файнат формс)

Non-finite.some scholars don’t contrast f and non-f forms but subdivide verbs according to different standards.

· They are high-graded parts of speech, included into adjectival and adverbial system(vinogradov)

2. For modern egnl verbals the most suitable approach is to include them into the verb system, taking into account their semant morphology and syntactic properties.

Morphologically they are closer to the verb.(historically they go back to nominal categ

Syntactically-closer to the verb. Though they share some syntactic functions with nominal parts of speech, they preserve the combinability of the verb and are capable of forming a construction of secondary predication, together with the subject expressed by the nominal part of speech.

19)Phase as a special verbal category was first distinguished by A.I. Smirnitsky who suggested the term категория временной отнесенности for the verb opposition presented by perfect and non-perfect forms. It is a binary privative opposition where perfect forms are marked formally /to have Partclple II/ and semantically /the meaning of priority or precedence/ while non-perfect forms remain unmarked. Before that perfect forms were regarded either as tense forms or aspect forms - those views on the problem are held by some grammarians up to now.

20) So far we have spoken of the ing-forms as of two different sets of homonymous forms: the gerund (with its distinctions of correlation and voice) and the participle (with its distinctions of correlation and voice). As there is no external difference between the two sets (they are complete homonyms), the question may arise whether there is reason enough to say that there are two different sets of forms, that is, whether it could not be argued that there is only one set of forms (we might then call them mg-forms), which in different contexts acquire different shades of meaning and perform different syntactical functions. Such a view (though without detailed argumentation) was indeed put forward by the Dutch scholar E. Kruisinga. In some passages of his book he merely speaks of ""the ing", though in other parts he uses the terms "gerund" and "'participle".

For instance, if in the sentence Do you mind my smoking? (where smoking is a gerund) we substitute me for my, in the resulting sentence Do you mind me smoking? the form smoking may, at least, be said to be the participle. Again, in the sentence Do you mind her smoking? where her may be the possessive pronoun, corresponding to my, or the objective case of the personal pronoun, corresponding to me, the gerund and the participle are practically indistinguishable. We may say, in terms of modern linguistics, that the opposition between them is neutralized. ¹

If, on the other hand, we prefer to abandon the distinction and to speak of the ing-form, we shall have to formulate its meaning and its functions in such a way as to allow for all the cases of the mg-forms to be included.

It must be said that this is one of the questions which do not admit of a definite solution. The solution largely depends on what view we take of the unity of a grammatical form and on the extent to which we are prepared to allow for shades of meaning in one form (or one set of forms). If we are prepared to admit any amount of variety in this sphere rather than admit the existence of grammatical homonyms, we shall have to develop a detailed theory of the mutual relations between the various shades of meaning that the form (or set of forms) can have.

Henry Smith, considers link words to belong to form words as well. He calls them full-form words. He became a king. (became is a form-word. It combines the full meaning of change with grammatical function of the form word is)

There are also empty words: is, the because they are devoid of meaning in the sentence. The earth is round.

Esperson in his book “Philosophy of grammar” combines adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjections into one part of speech and calls them particles on the basis that they are invariable in the form.

A) Includes all words in the position of the definite article. The concert was good.(your, some, that…)

B) Words occurring in the position of may in the frame may be good. They serve as markers of the class 2 words. To them belong all modal verbs and some link words(get)

D) All words that occur in the position of very in the frame very good (quite, awfully)

E) All words that occur in the position of and (but, or, nor) that connect words within one sentence.

I) All words that occur in the position after which is used as connecting clauses

II. The problem of meaning of functional words. Traditionally they are devoid of lexical meaning. Роговская, Хаймович, Ильиш, Смирницкий think they have.

Бархударов speaks of their due nature. They can be affixes and other grammatical means. Formally they are words because they can change their position and can be extracted from a notional word. Besides one and the same formal word can refer to more than one notional word. With father and mother

There are more than 300 different definituions of the sentence,but not a universal one.

Logical is the most known: “a sentence is an expression of a complete thought,it’s a judgement or a proposotion”.

Blokh: “the sentence is a unit of speech.built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.”

Foreign scholars against this definition,as the meaning isn’t an integral part of a sentence.

Шахматов: a sent.is a psychological phenomena which is expressed grammatically.

Phonetic approach:Paul Roberts::a sent. is a succession of sounds divided into brief groups by pauses required for taking breath”. “-“ of this approach: 1) the sent. can be considered only in oral communication;2)the impossibility to single out a composite sentence because there is a pause in the inner structure ot a composite sentence as well.

Graphical approach::sent. – a succession of words between 2 full-stops”. “-“ of this approach: the sentence may be defined only in writing.

Grammatical. In modern grammar: “ a sent. – is a grammatical unit”. C.Freeze: “ a sent. – a minimal free-utterance”. L.Bloomfield: “a sent. – a free linguistic form,which isn’t a part of any other linguistic form”. Problem is: should a sentence be regarded as a unit of language or speech?

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