Билет 31. Secondary sentence parts

Do not form predication, they are used to complete&expand principle sentence-parts> they are called “compliments”.

Ac. Пешковский doesn’t use the notions of obj.,attr.,adv.modifier, but he classifies them into those, which are governed &those which are not governed.

object tr-ly it is a secondary sent part, denotes a thing by the process or property, ex-d mainly in the predicate. (subdivided into simple, complex,….см скг )

object 1- always non-prepositionalirrespective of its position in the sentence (they sent a doctor away. They sent away a doctor)

2- eiter prepositional or non-prep. Depends on its position (they sent a doctor some money. They sent some money to the doctor)

Symmetrical verbs - whose subj-s and obj-s may exchange their positions without producing any change in the meaning of the sent(.ex. to meet, to marry) there are some verbs not requiring any ob. In the sent. As the ob. Is mentioned in the verb! –go blackberry(ходить за ягодами)

Sometimes no clear -cut border-line between a prepositional obj. & adv.modifier(he was looking at the door)

иванова > it is a prepos. Obj, if the use of the prep is governed by the verb. If the use of the prep is optional, Then it’s an adv. Modifier

ильиш suggests the term “neutralization “calls them secondary sent parts without further subdivision.

1) Whether the attr. Is the same synt.level as other secondary sent-members or whether an attr. Is of lower rank,than an obj& the adv.mod

1) Whether the sec.sent.members are optional. this approach is based on theory of valiancy (валентности). According to this theory –optional and obligatory valiancy are distinguished.

The obligatory one is as must, necessarily been realized to complete the sentence structurally. In this connection sec.sent.parts are obligatory, if they form the obligatory valiancy of the pred.

The optional one is such as it isn’t necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions.(She wrote me a letter - a direct obj. is marked by the obligatory valiancy –of a lower level than apredicate)

I) 2 member vs one-member (a sentence in which there’s 1 principle part & the other part cannot be supplied without a change in the structure)

Шахматов says that the main part of 1 member sentence is Either the subject Or the predicate! Other scholars call it TheMain Part, As grammatical S. or Pr. Are correlative notions & the terms are meaningless outside their relations to each other (виноградов)

II) complete & elliptical ( a sentence which has1 or both principal members are omitted but can easily restored)

Профессор бархударов considers sent-s of the type @come@ elliptical (not one-member) as they can be traced to full sen-s (“you come”)

Ellipsis: initia l (what’s her name- don’t know), medial (you sure I ‘ve done?) final (who is coming- tom &mary)

There is a speсiфl kind of ellipses-representation (some, any, each, either а также nouns in possessive case, adj-s, participles, numerals, prepositions) смотри скг, если это надо, или очерки по синтаксису стр 31), and a specific way of sentence elements economy-substitution (one, do &not)

III) transitional sen-s (from a simple to composite) встречаются здесь эллиптические предл-я

1)semi-complex: a) with verbless clauses- when a child, he suffered much. B) with detached members – bored, the family went to bed.

2)semi-compound a) with homogeneous S. and PR. – he tore the foto, threw it in the fire b)with a dependant member (conj-s as, but, as though) – she is prettier than you!

These sentences represent cases of transition from simple to composite sentences and are know as semi-compound and semi-complex sentences.

A) Semi-compound sentences include sentences with homogeneous parts, e.g. I swung round, and found her carefully doing her make-up (< I swing round + I found her carefully doing her make-up). Only one predicative line is explicitly expressed in semi-compound sentences as the second predictive line is fused with the first.

B) Semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence based on the principle of subordination.

1) Sentences with secondary predication (complex subject, complex object, absolute participial constructions), e.g. I saw him come, I saw that him come. They also include sentences with a dependent appendix such as “He is better that you” (=He is better that you are).

2) Sentences with the double predicate –
the sun rose red<=
when the sun rose it was red.

3) Verbless clauses.
when a child he was happy<=
when he was a child, he as happy.

4) Sentences with detached sentence-members
a girl, beautiful & charming, entered the room.

In semi-complex sentences the second predicative line is weakened as it is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb or implicitly.

1) From the point of the view of syntagmatic structure the semi-composite sentence is similar to the simple sentence because it has only one predicative line that is expressed explicitly.

2) From the point of view of syntactic derivation these sentences are similar to complex sentences because they are derived from two or more base sentences.

Surface Str – structure used in speech and generated from Kernel structure be certain derivation rules

- 1) N (pronoun) - V (the team went) 2) - N – V – N 3) - N – V – Prep. N. 4) - N – is – N

Formational rules – are rules which rewuire or allow to perform a certain changes in

c) Complex Sentence – when Kernel sentences are joined by the means of insertion when one sentence is inserted between compounds of the other

2. The definition of a Kernel Str isn’t exact usually – the K. Str = is a two – member unextended unit.

FSP – actual diversion of the sentences – a special type of discourse (дискурс) analysis concerned with the communicative function of utterance in a given sentence.

It has been noticed that different sentence parts are not identical n their communicative value. As a rule we may distinguish two parts in a sentence from this viewpoint: one part indicating the starting point of the statement, and the other the new information for the sake of which the sentence has been uttered or written.

This method deals with the arrangement of the theme & rheme in an utterance.
The theme – is a part expressing smth known to the listener & a speaker.
The rheme – is a pert containing view info proper.

The theme and the rheme do not necessarily coincide with the grammatical subject and grammatical predicate although the coincidence is not at all excluded as communicative dynamism of the sentence usually increases forwards the end of the sentence.
The door opened and the young man came in vs The door opened and a young man

There are several linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactical) which are used to signal the rheme and theme.

Phonetic signals include stress, pauses and intonation:
Mary left for ‘London; Mary ‘left for London (different accents underline new

information); “The stairs … opening the door … my surprise that no one was there” (R. Gordon. Doctor in the house) – here pauses between clauses make all of them rhematic.

Morphologically the rheme and the theme may be signaled by the definite (theme) and the indefinite articles or no article (rheme).
The was a river near the houses vs. The river was near the house.

· Syntactic means include word order and number of different syntactic constructions.

1) New information becomes prominetnt in cases of subject-predicate inversion with opening adverbials: “Here comes the first question ”.

2) W.o. – objectve (the theme preceds the rheme)
subjective (the rheme preceds the theme).

3) Syntactic constructions “ there is ”, “ it is … that ” … (also it is … who, it is … which) serve to point out the rheme: “There are several students in the room”.

4) Complex sentences of the type: “It was his voice that held me”(His voice held me) are termed cleft constructions.

5) As to, as for constructions introduce the theme: “As for aul he is an excellent student ”.

1) Particles (rheme) such as even, just, only: “ Only he was absent last time”.

The theory of functional sentence perspective is in a state of further investigation. Thus, J. Firbas developed the method spoke of 3 fold diversion of the utterance
link word: she turned pale < theme, trasition, rheme
Russia – Слюсарева.
demerit – 1) a 2– fold structure is not always clear
2) the whole sentence may be
a rheme -
He’s a gentleman?
My ideas obsolete.

There are several linguistic means (phonetic, lexical, morphological & syntactical) which are used to signal the theme &the rheme.

“The stars…opening the door…my surprise that no one was there”(R.Gordon. Doctor in the house) – here pauses between clauses make all of them rhematic.

Morphologically the theme &the rheme may be signalled by the definite and the indefinite articles: cnf. There was a river (R) near the house vs. The river (T) was near the house.

Personal subject pronouns, the demonstrative this & that functioning as subject are usually used thematically:

There are several syntactic means which signal the T-R division of the sentence. The include word order & a number of different syntactic constructions. New information becomes prominent in cases of subject-predicate inversion with opening adverbials: ”then came the Princess of Wales on his right”; “On the long wall hung a row of Van Goths ”; Here comes the first question ”.

Syntactic constructions “ there is ”, “ it is…that ”…(also it is…who, it is…which) serve to point out the R: “ There are several students in the room”; “it was here that he met her for he first time.” Complex sentences of the type:”It was his voice that held me” (cnf. His voice held me) are termed cleft constructions: “Clefting is similar to dislocation in the sense that information that could be given in a single clause is broken up in this case into two clauses, each with its own verb (D. Biber…Grammar of spoken &written English, p.958).

As to, as for constructions, contrary to the previous ones, introduce the T: “As for Paul he is an excellent student ”, “As to our meeting, it was postponed until next week ”.

Lexical means of pointing out THEME & RHEME include some particles such as even, just, only: “ Only he was absent last time”

In linguistic literature we may meet other terms indicating different role of sentence elements in information flow: given/topical vs new information

The theme-rheme arrangement can be applied to the majority of two-member sentences, although there are some purely rhematic and purely thematic sentences as well.

The story of functional sentence perspective is in a state of further investigation. Some points of the theory have been made more precise in course o its development. Thus, J.Firbas in his analysis of English functional sentence perspective came to the conclusion that there may be some intermediate elements between the theme & the rheme, link verbs mentioned among them.

Substitution - grammatical phenomena when a substitute (prop-word) is used instead of another word, a phrase or a sentence.

1) structural; it’s devoid of a lexical meaning. Introductory IT, introductory THERE, auxiliary verbs

2) lexical (lexico-structural; semantic); prop-words that possess a lexical meaning and a syntactic function. For example: one, personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, so (I have done so) – adverb.

Representation – a variety of substitution, when a part is used instead of the whole. It’s used to avoid repetition. It’s typical of verb forms.

В репрезентации слово, которое замещает целую фразу, является частью этой фразы и уже там встречалось.

Modal, auxiliary verbs, link verbs, YES, I do, NOT (negative particle. Will he come? I think not), TO (particle. Would you like to do it? I’d like to), adjectives (superlatives), nouns (Genitive case), substantivized adjectives (the latter), indefinite pronouns.

In general, S. and R. are special kinds of ellipsis (when unstressed words are omitted).

Ellipsis may be initial (in oral speech: “Glad you got a job”), medial (more common in AmE: “When you coming back”; are is omitted), final (Who is leaving for London? John and Mary (“are leaving “– is omitted).

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