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ОПД.Ф.02.3 Лексикология английского языкаСтр 1 из 11Следующая ⇒ СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Рабочая программа по лексикологии английского языка……………………………… 3 Краткое изложение программного материала (цикл лекций)………………………….16 Методические указания по курсовым работам…………………………………………66 Методические указания по самостоятельной работе (для заочников)………..............71 Контрольные работы……………………………………………………………………...94 Вопросы для итогового контроля студентов…………………………………………..103 Экзаменационные билеты ……………………………………………………………...104 Тесты………………………………………………………………………………..........108 ППС………………………………………………………………………………………111 Глоссарий………………………………………………………………………………..112 Ролевые игры…………………………………………………………………………….114 ОПД.Ф.02.3 Лексикология английского языка Теоретическая и прикладная лексикология. Связь лексикологии с другими разделами языкознания. Слово как основная единица лексической системы. Основные способы номинации в языке. Этимологические основы лексикона. Семасиология. Семантика лексических единиц. Значение слова в функциональном аспекте. Методы разграничения значений и выявления компонентов значения. Национально-культурная специфика смысловой структуры соотносительных слов в русском и изучаемых иностранных языках. Историческая изменчивость смысловой структуры слова. Семантические группировки в лексической системе языка. Омонимия и ее место в лексической системе языка. Источники омонимии. Словообразование. Морфологическое и деривационное строение слова. Историческая изменчивость структуры слова. Принципы и методы морфемного и словообразовательного анализа структуры слова в языке. Понятие словообразовательной модели. Основные и комплексные единицы системы словообразования. Функциональный аспект в системе словообразования. Способы словообразования в языке. Национально-культурная специфика словообразования. Сочетаемость лексических единиц. Понятие валентности. Свободные и устойчивые словосочетания. Фразеологические единицы. Соотнесенность фразеологической единицы и слова. Классификация фразеологических единиц. Социальная и территориальная дифференциация словарного состава. Основы лексикографии. 1. Цели и задачи дисциплины Рабочая программа по курсу “Лексикология английского языка” разработана в соответствии с Государственным стандартом высшего профессионального образования, утвержденным Министерством образования Российской Федерации, который ставит целью достижение специалистами лингвистами-переводчиками высокого уровня владения лексикой английского языка, его историей, позволяющего им продолжить вести профессиональную деятельность в условиях диалога культур. В соответствии с задачами курса лексикологии английского языкапредусматривается обучение студентов проблемам этимологии английских слов, полисемии, словообразования, фразеологии на основе комплексной организации учебного материала и выработка у них профессиональных умений и навыков владения словарным запасом на английском языке. Цель курса: “Лексикология английского языка” – состоит в ознакомлении студентов с фундаментальными понятиями лексикологической науки, введении современных приемов и методов лексикологического анализа на основе привлечения новейших данных о языке, а также на базе тесной связи теоретических изысканий с нуждами практического преподавания английского языка.
Задачи курса: - изучение теоретической части; - усвоение практической части. - выработка у студентов представления о значении слова, о лексической системе английского языка в целом, о характере взаимоотношений лексических единиц внутри микросистем и самими микросистемами как в синхроническом, так и в диахроническом плане. Одной из основных задач служит также ознакомление студентов с теоретическими основами и практическим применением методик исследования лексических систем. 1.2. Требования к уровню усвоения дисциплины В результате изучения курса обучаемые должны знать: 1) основные положения теории лексикологии английского языка, составляющие 2) основу теоретической и практической профессиональной подготовки преподавателей английского языка; 3) специфические особенности организации и функционирования англоязычного дискурса; 3) особенности языковых средств, используемых в разных типах дискурса для достижения определенных коммуникативных задач. 4) уметь: 5) применять полученные теоретические знания на практике в процессе межкультурной коммуникации; 6) уметь работать с научной литературой; 7) на основе полученных знаний самостоятельно ставить 8) исследовательские задачи и находить адекватные методы их решения; быть ознакомленными: 9) с новейшими публикациями по актуальным проблемам лексикологии английского языка. 1.3. Связь с другими дисциплинами Учебного плана Курс лексикологии английского языка тесно связан с такими дисциплинами, как "Общее языкознание", «История языкознания», "Стилистика английского языка", "История английского языка", "Теоретическая грамматика английского языка", «Лингвокультурология». По теоретической грамматике - Предложение как единица сообщения. Проблема предикации как конститутивного фактора предложения. Номинативный аспект предложения, соотнесенный с его предикативным аспектом. Проблема семантической структуры предложения. Словосочетание как единица номинации. Понятие синтаксической модели в приложении к предложению и словосочетанию. Синтагматическое и парадигматическое моделирование предложения и словосочетания; По английской литературе- с творчеством отдельных англо-американских писателей
2. Содержание дисциплины, способы и методы учебной деятельности преподавателя Аудиторные занятия Лекционные занятия студентов 4 семестр
Семинарские занятия студентов 4 семестр
2.2. Индивидуальная работа преподавателя со студентами Индивидуальная работа преподавателя со студентами 4 семестр
2.3. Самостоятельная работа студентов Самостоятельная работа студентов 4 семестр
Средства обучения Информационно-методические
Материально-технические
4. Контроль знаний студентов
4. Примерные вопросы к итоговому контролю В опросы для текущего контроля Этимология 1. Объясните причины огромного количества слов иностранного происхождения в английском языке. 2. Какова самая ранняя группа заимствований в английском языке? Датируйте её. 3. Каовы заимствования из кельтского языка, датируйте их. 4. Какие слова были привнесены в английский язык во время периода христианизации? 5. Каковы характерные черты скандинавских заимствований? 6. Каковы особенности слов, заимствованных английским языком в период Ренессанса? 7. Какие суффиксы и приставки могут помочь вам распознать слова латинского и французского происхождения? 8. Почему заимствуются слова, и какие условия стимулируют процесс заимствования? 9. Какие этапы ассимиляции проходят заимствованные слова? 10. В каких сферах коммуникации особенно часто появляются интернациональные слова? 11. Что мы понимаем под этимологическими дублетами? 12. Каковы основные черты калькированных слов? Значение 1. Что понимается под термином «семантика»? Объясните термин «полисемия». Проиллюстрируйте свой ответ примерами. 2. Каковы два уровня анализа в исследовании семантической структуры слова? 3. Какие типы семантических компонентов могут различаться внутри значения слова? 4. Каков один из наиболее точных методов исследования семантической структуры слова? Что понимается под термином «collocability (combinability)»? 5. Что является причиной развития нового значения? Дайте примеры. Что является основой развития или смены значения? Объясните, что мы понимаем под термином «transference». 6. Какие типы переноса значения вы можете назвать? Дайте примеры. 7. Что означают термины «расширение» и «сужение» значения? 8. Объясните, что понимается под «ухудшением» и «улучшением» значения.
Словообразование 1. Каковы главные пути обогащения словаря английского языка? 2. Каковы основные продуктивные способы словообразования в английском языке? 3. Что мы понимаем под термином «derivation»? 4. В чем разница между частотностью и продуктивностью аффиксов? Дайте собственные примеры, иллюстрирующие положение о том, что аффиксы имеют собственное значение. 5. Какие особенности современного английского языка обеспечили высокую продуктивность конверсии? Какие категории частей речи особенно подвержены конверсии? 6. Что понимается под термином «composition»? Как мы называем слова, которые образованы таким типом словообразования? 7. На какие группы и подгруппы могут делиться сложные слова? Дайте примеры. 8. Какие типы словосложения являются продуктивными в современном английском? Как это можно проиллюстрировать? 9. Каковы критерии разграничения сложных слов и словосочетаний? 10. Каковы два процесса образования сокращений? Объясните продуктивность этого способа словообразования и стилистические характеристики сокращенных слов. Дайте примеры. 11. Какие другие процессы словообразования вы знаете? Опишите их и проиллюстрируйте свой ответ примерами.
Тесты текущего контроля- Методическая разработка. «Лексикология английского языка Контрольные работы». Экзаменационные вопросы 1. The Object of Lexicology. General Lexicology and Special Lexicology. 2. Classification of Suffixes. 3. What Celtic borrowings are in English? Date them and give examples. 4. Descriptive Lexicology. 5. Semantic structure of English words. 6. Which words were introduced into English Vocabulary during the period of Christianization? 7. Theory of the Word. Definitions. 8. Prefixes. Valency. 9. What are the characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings? Give examples. 10. Semasiology. Semasiology or Semantics? 11. Morphological Structure of English Words. 12. What are the characteristic features of words borrowed into English during the Renaissance? 13. The Lexical Meaning of the word and its Semantic Structure. 14.Morphemes. Free and Bound Morphemes. 15.What Suffixes and Prefixes can help you to recognize the words of Latin and French origin? 16. Denotative Meaning of a word. 17.The Valency of Affixes and Stems. 18.Why are words borrowed and which conditions stimulate the borrowing process? 19.Connotations. The Emotional Content. 20.Stages of Assimilation of the borrowed words. 21.Productive and Non-productive affixes. 22.Significative Meaning. Grammatical Meaning. 23.Compound words. The Criteria of Compounds. Classification of Compounds. 24.Give the examples of Etymological Doublets. 25.Semantic Components. 26.Aims and principles of Morphemic and Word-formation Analysis. Immediate constituents. Composition. 27.In what spheres of communication do International words frequently occur? 28.The Lexical Meaning and the Notion. Types of Semantic Components distinguished within the Meaning. 29.Derivational and Functional Affixes. 30.What are the characteristic features of Translation Loans? 31. Connection of Lexicology with Phonetics, Stylistics and Grammar. 32. Semantic change of a word. Semantic triangle. 33. Shortening (contraction). Give the definition and examples. 34.Etymology of English words. Etymological structure of the English Vocabulary. 35.Minor types of Modern word-building. Reduplication. Back-formation. Conversion. 36.Classify the following synonyms according to degree: gratify, please, exalt, content, satisfy, delight. 37.Theoretical and practical value of Lexicology. 38. Synonyms. Definition. Sources of Synonymy. 39.Find the dominant Synonyms in the groups: to astonish-to amaze-to surprise-to astound;to glimmer-to glisten-to blaze-to shine-to sparkle-to flash. 40.What is Phraseology? 41.Antonyms. 42.What is the earliest group of English borrowings? Date it. 43.Definitions of phraseology by Russian, British and the USA scholars. 44.Homonyms. Phonetic coincidence or semantic differentiation? 45.Explain the reasons of immense number of foreign origin words in English. 46.Lexicography. Definition. Types of Dictionaries. 47.Widening and Narrowing of the meaning. 48.Give the examples of Latin Affixes. 49.Euphemisms. 50.“Degradation” and “Elevation “ of Meaning. 51. Give the examples of Latin Prefixes. 52.Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity) 53.Semi-Affixes. 54.Explain when and under what circumstances did England become a bi-lingual country? 55. Transference Based on Contiguity. 56.Which types of Composition are Productive in Modern English? How can this be demonstrated 57.Date the following borrowings: “bishop”, “monk”, “nun”, “candle”. From what language did the come? 58.Types of transference. 59. International words. 60. Give the examples of French Affixes. Лекция 1 Lexicology as a science. Plan Лекция 2 Plan What is Semasiology? Лекция 3 Cognitive semantics Plan Frame. 1) Cognitive linguistics (from Lat. cognitio – knowledge, process of acquaintance), a direction in language science which studies the problems of relation between language and conscience, the role of language in conceptualization and categorization of world, in cognitive processes and in summing up human experience, connection of separate cognitive abilities of a man with his language and the forms of their interaction. It appeared in the beginning of the 80-s of the XXth century (Big Russian Encyclopedia Dictionary) 2) Conceptualization – this is the definition of the notions, relations and the mechanisms of coordination necessary for the description of the tasks solution description in the chosen sphere. Categorization – (from Greek kategor i a – saying, feature) – the psychic process of reference of the unique object, event, feeling to some class which could be presented by verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, sensor and perceptive clichés, social stereotypes, behavioral stereotypes and so on. The process of Categorization is included directly into the processes of perception, thinking, imagination, the object of which is accepted and thought of as not a unique and immediate reality but as a representative of some general class, and this objects accepts the peculiarities and characteristic features of a given class of events. Being the means of world acknowledgement, the categorical structures of individual consciousness could not be acknowledged by a person as suchlike structures. The forms of categorization have complete hierarchical organization, the form and functioning of which is studied by genetic and general psychology. 3) Concept in Philosophy and Linguistics – this is the content of notion, sense meaning of a name (sign). It differs from the sign and its subject meaning (denotate). It is identical to notion and significate. Notion - this is a form of thinking which reflects the essential features, connections and relations of the objects and events I their contradictions and development; thought or the system of thoughts combining, underlining the objects of some class according to definite common and if taken together, their specific features. Notion does not only underlines something common, but also separates objects, their features and relations by means of classifying the last in accordance with their differences. For example, the notion “man” reflects essentially common (that belong to all people) and the difference between a man and everything around. Due to its origin the notion is a result of long process of development of acknowledgement. Creation of a notion – is a long dialectical process which is done with the help of such methods as comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, generalization, experiment and other. Notion – this is reflection of reality in a word. It acquires its real thought-speech existence only in development of definitions, in statements in definite theories. Sense — this is a supposed (putative – мнимое) or real intended purpose (intent- предназначение ) of any objects, words, notions, or actions from the point of view of a concrete man or a group of people. Sense – this is a notion which is implied (подразумеваемое) and it depends directly on the knowledge about a subject/object. Any unknown thing might seem meaningless if someone does not know how to use it and which profit could be extracted from it. And vice verse, due to lack of knowledge any meaningless thing could be given false useful properties and possess a sense from somebody’s point of view. The bright example of senseless for the ones and full of meaning for the other subjects could serve any superstitions: some people believe that superstitions could help to foresee the future events and thus they see a lot of sense in them; while the other do not believe in superstitions and do not see any sense in them. The same could be said about any unknown language: those people who do not understand it perceive the phrases as senseless at the same time those who speak this language understand the phrases of very clearly. Language in this respect is a unique phenomenon as it is a holder of the senses of some nation and as soon as every word in a language has its own sense, its intended purpose for transference of any information. Language helps people understand each other and exchange useful knowledge about different events and objects. If it had not been than the sense of objects which had been clear for one person, would be hidden from other people and following from that they could not be able to extract any use from these things. The words with sense change everything. Meaning – the association connection between sign and thought. It is studied by semantics. There is no general or complete scheme of types of lexical meaning as linguistic literature abounds in various terms reflecting various points of view. The following terms may be found with different authors: the meaning is direct or nominative when it nominates the object without the help of context, in isolation, i.e. in one–word sentences. The meaning is figurative when the object is named and at the same time characterized through its similarity with another object. Other oppositions are abstract: concrete, main or primary:: secondary, central:: peripheric, narrow:: extended, general:: particular and so on. The main meaning is that which possesses the highest frequency at the present stage of development. All these terms reflect relationships existing between different meanings of a word at the same period, so the classification may be called synchronic and paradigmatic(See more in Chapter 7 of the textbook by Antrushina). 4) Frame. Frames, scenarios and situational models. Frame — from English - каркас, остов, рамка, структура) — 1) in cognitive psychology this is a notion which describes a structurally formed unit of some concrete knowledge, picture, scenario, scheme, and so on, with the help of which a perceive situation can be identified; 2) in psycho semantics – this is a structurally formed unit of knowledge, organized around some notion and containing the data about essential, typical and possible for this notion The word “frame” was initially used in 1970s by American scientist Marvin Minsky who dealt with problems of artificial intellect. He was one of the first scientists who created the theoretical model of (called “the theory of frames”) knowledge structures which lie in the basis of everyday cognitive activity of the people. Minsky proposed an idea that our knowledge is coded in the blocks called “frames”(he used the metaphor from photography). These blocks of knowledge simplify understanding of many aspects of everyday life thus allowing easy and fast access to the information, stored in memory and relevant reaction. The notion “frame” became generic notion for the following notions: “Scheme” in cognitive psychology (F. Bartlett, 1932), scene, scenario cognitive model, module (Ch.J. Fillmore, 1975), association ties (G.H. Bower, 1972), and semantic field. Frames organize our understanding of a world as a whole thus making everyday behavior clear for us. Being fixed in memory as the “labels” for the whole scenes, they may perform as the typical classifiers. Several types of information are connected with every frame: (1) about its usage, (2) what to expect; (3) what to do if the expectations fail. As a form the frames usually are shown as a structure of knots and relations among them. Besides the internal relations within the frames, there can be the interframe relations. Лекция 4 Plan. Synonyms in English. Definition of antonyms. 1) The development and change of the semantic structure of English words is always a source of qualitative and quantitative development of the vocabulary. Polysemy is inherent in the very nature of words and notions, as they always contain a generalization of several traits of the object. Some of these traits are common with other objects. Hence the possibility of identical names for objects possessing common features. One and the same word may have several meanings. A word that has more than one meaning is called polysemantic. Polysemy is characteristic of most words in many languages however different they may be. But it is more characteristic of the English vocabulary as compared with Russian, due to the monosyllabic character of English and the predominance of root words. The greater the relative frequency of the word, the greater the number of elements that constitute its semantic structure, i.e. the more polysemantic it is. Polysemy does not interfere with the communicative function of the language because in every particular case the situation and the context, i.e. the environment of the word, cancel all the unnecessary meanings and make speech unambiguous. We shall deal in detail with various types of semantic change. The development and change of the semantic structure of a word is always a source of qualitative and quantitative development of the vocabulary. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word Every word has a variety of senses and connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates (c ognates in linguistics are words that have a common origin. They may occur within a language, such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from the Proto-Indo-European word *sker-, meaning "to cut". They may also occur across languages, e.g. night and German Nacht as descendants of Proto-Indo-European *nokt-, "night". The word cognate derives from Latin cognatus, from co (with) + gnatus, natus, past participle of nasci "to be born". Literally it means "related by blood, having a common ancestor, or related by an analogous nature, character, or function") across space and time have very different meanings. Semantic change is one of three major processes to find a designation for a concept. The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology and semantics. An example of a recent semantic change is of the word mouse; with the advent of computer technology, the word for the rodent has been used as a referent for the input device. All the types of semantic change depend on some comparison between the earlier (whether extinct or still in use) and the new meaning of the given word. M. Breal was the first to emphasize the fact that in passing from general usage into some special sphere of communication a word as a rule undergoes some sort of specialization of its meaning. When the meaning is specialized, the word can name fewer objects, i.e. have fewer referents. At the same the content of the notion is being enriched, as it includes a greater number of relevant features by which the notion is characterized. Or as St. Ulmann puts it: “The word is now applicable to more things but tells us less about them”. Classification of semantic change: specification (or narrowing of the meaning), generalization, metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony, euphemism (See more about metaphor and metonymy in Antrushina Chapter 7). Hyperbole (from Greek huperballo- “exceed”) is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally but expressing an intensely emotional attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about. The emotional tone is due to the illogical character in which the direct denotative and the contextual emotional meanings are combined. Example: When people say: “I’ve told you fifty times”, They mean to scold and very often do (Byron). Lytotes – is the reverse figure (from Greek litos – “plain”, “meager”) or understatement. It might be defined as expressing the affirmative by the negation of its contrary: e.g. not bad or not half bad for “good”, not small for “great”, no coward for “brave” and so on. The purpose of understatement is not to deceive but to produce a stronger impression on the hearer. Irony – this term is taken from rhetoric, i.e. expression of one’ meaning by words of opposite meaning, especially a simulated adoption of the opposite point of view for the purpose of ridicule. One of the meanings of the adjective nice is “bad”, “unsatisfactory”, it is marked of f as ironical and illustrated by the example: You’ve got us into a nice mess! The same may be said about the adjective pretty: A pretty mess you’ve maid of it! Euphemism (Greek euphemismos from eu “well” and pheme “speak”) is the substitution of words of mild or vague connotations for expressions rough, unpleasant or for some other reasons unmentionable. Causes of semantic change. They may be grouped under two main headings, linguistic and extra linguistic ones. The first group deals with changes due to the constant interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech, such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with the ellipsis (when the qualifying words of a frequent phrase may be omitted: sale comes to be used instead of cut-price sale) and with fixed contexts, changes resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts, and some other cases. The extra linguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language: they are observed in the changes of meaning resulting from the development of the notion expressed and the thing named and by the appearance of new notions and things. In other words, extra linguistic causes of semantic change are connected with the development of the human mind as it moulds reality to conform to its needs.
2) Homonymy. Many words, especially characterized by a high frequency rating, are not connected with meaning by one-to-one relationship. On the contrary, one symbol as a rule serves to render several different meanings. The phenomenon may be said to be the reverse of synonymy where several symbols correspond to one meaning. Two or more words, identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution and (in many cases) origin are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek (homos – “similar” and onoma – “name”) and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. It is the duty of lexicographers to define the boundaries of each word, i.e. to differentiate homonyms and to unite variants deciding in each case whether the different meaning belong o the same polysemantic word or whether there are grounds to treat them as two or more separate words identical in form. Careful analyses of the relevant literature (cf. Šipka 1991) evidenced nine central problems in the research of homonymy, as follows: 1. definition of homonymy. 2. homonymy vs. polysemy. 3. lexical homonymy vs. homonymy at other levels. 4. classification of homonymy. 5. causes of homonymy. 6. differentiation of the homonymic lexemes in text. 7. use of homonymy within the lexicon. 8. language reactions to homonymic conflict. In this paper we will restrict our discussion to just one of the above problems - the classification of homonymy. Homonyms are words which have the same spelling and pronunciation as each other but different meanings and origins. The sources of homonyms: 1) homonymy through convergent sound development, when two or three words of different origin accidentally coincide in sound; 2) homonymy developed form polysemy through divergent sense development. Both may be combined with loss of endings and other morphological processes. Homophones are words which have the same pronunciation as each other but different spellings and meanings: buy – by, knight –night, steel – steal, write –right and so on. Homophones, are words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings. They are usually spelled differently: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I ate the eight cakes that were on my plate. 11. How many ways can I tell him that he weighs too much? Homographs are words which are spelt the same as each other but which have a different pronunciation and meaning (they are different in sound and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling): bow [bou] – bow [bau], lead [li:d] – lead [led], row [rou] – row [rau], wind [wind] – wind [waind] and many more. 3) Synonyms are different words with identical or at least similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek (" syn ") "with" and (” onoma ") "name." An example of synonyms is the words car and automobile. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions) as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are: baby and infant (noun) student and pupil (noun) buy and purchase (verb) pretty and attractive (adjective) sick and ill (adjective) quickly and speedily (adverb) on and upon (preposition) freedom and liberty (noun) dead and deceased (adjective) In English many synonyms evolved from a mixture of Norman French and English words, often with some words associated with the Saxon countryside ("folk", "freedom") and synonyms with the Norman nobility ("people", "liberty"). Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. However, many people feel that the synonyms they use are identical in meaning for all practical purposes, and are interchangeable. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others, such as a long arm and an extended. There are different kinds of synonyms: contextual or context-dependent synonyms, relative synonyms and total synonyms. Contextual or context-dependent synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. It may happen when the difference between the meanings of two words is contextually neutralized. E.g. buy and get would not generally be taken as synonyms, but they are synonyms in the following examples: I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread – I’ll go to the shop and get some bread. Relative synonyms – are distinguished with respect to different kinds of semantic similarity. E.g. like- love – adore; gift –talent –genius. This attitude is open to discussion. In fact the difference in denotative meaning is unmistakable: the words name different notions, not various degrees of the same notion (according to I. Arnold), and cannot substitute one another. Total synonymy, i.e. synonymy where the members of a synonymic group can replace each other in any given context, without a slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations, is a rare occurrence. E.g. are found in technical terms and in special literature. Thus, in linguistics the terms noun and substantive, functional affix, flection or inflection are identical in meaning. Sources of synonymy. Synonymy has its characteristic patterns in each language. Its peculiar feature in English is the contrast between simple native words stylistically neutral, literary words borrowed from French and learned words of Greco-Latin origin: to ask – to question – to interrogate; belly – stomach – abdomen; to gather – to assemble – to collect; to end – to finish – to complete; to rise – to mount – to ascend. Euphemisms – also the source of synonymy: poor – underprivileged; pregnant – in the family way; drunkenness - intoxication Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings. For example: dead and alive near and far war and peace increase and decrease Antonyms, from the Greek “anty"opposite") and onoma ("name") are word pairs that are opposite in meaning such as hot and cold, corpulent and skinny, and up and down. Words may have different antonyms, depending on the meaning. Both long and tall are antonyms of short. Antonyms may be defined as two or rarely more words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and used together so that their denotative meanings render contrary or contradictory notions. Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional colouring or distribution. They are interchangeable at least in some contexts. Antonyms form binary oppositions, the distinctive feature of which is semantic polarity. Absolute antonyms are words regularly contrasted as homogeneous sentence members connected by copulative, disjunctive or adversative conjunctions, or identically used in parallel constructions, in certain typical configurations (typical contexts): love – hate; late - early. Derivational antonyms: known – unknown. (Classification according to   ЧТО ПРОИСХОДИТ ВО ВЗРОСЛОЙ ЖИЗНИ? Если вы все еще «неправильно» связаны с матерью, вы избегаете отделения и независимого взрослого существования...  Что вызывает тренды на фондовых и товарных рынках Объяснение теории грузового поезда Первые 17 лет моих рыночных исследований сводились к попыткам вычислить, когда этот...  ЧТО ПРОИСХОДИТ, КОГДА МЫ ССОРИМСЯ Не понимая различий, существующих между мужчинами и женщинами, очень легко довести дело до ссоры...  Что делать, если нет взаимности? А теперь спустимся с небес на землю. Приземлились? Продолжаем разговор... Не нашли то, что искали? Воспользуйтесь поиском гугл на сайте:
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The wind blew my blue shirt into the pool.