Determination of Tithis (Lunar days)

1. I shall recount how the Tithis1 (lunar days) can be decisively fixed. I shall relate also the mode of expiation, О excellent sage, listen to that from which the holy rites, bear fruit.

2. О Brahmana, the Vratas, charitable gifts, etc. enjoined in the Srutis or Smrtis, nay all the other Vedic rites, do not bear fruits if performed on Tithis other than what have been fixed.

3-4a. For the observance of a fast or undertaking a Vrata (religious vow), if the tithis (lunar days), viz. the eleventh, eighth, sixth, the Full Moon day, the fourteenth, the New Moon day and the third tithi are pierced (contacted) by the next tithi (lunar day) [that is the eleventh tithi spreads into the twelfth.... the third lunar day into the fourth, etc.] they become commendable, but not so when they are combined with their (immediately) previous tithi2 [as when Ekadashi, the eleventh tithi is combined with the D of ami, the tenth tithi.... the trtiya, the third tithi with the second, etc.]

4b-5a. If the sixth tithi is ‘pierced by i.e. combined with the fifth tithi (ndga-viddha) or the seventh tithi is combined with the eighth and the tenth tithi is contacted by the eleventh, these days are never to be observed as fasts.

5b-6a. A person performing Sraddha on the new Moon day, the Full Moon day, the seventh tithi when these are combined with their respective immediately preceding tithi, goes to hell.

6b-7a. Some, however, have stated that if in the dark half of the month, the seventh and the fourteenth tithis are contacted by their (respective) previous tithis, those (tithis) are commendable; the same is the case with the third and the ninth tithi (in the dark half) [for the performance of shraddha.] 7b-8a. For all Vratas and similar undertakings, the bright half of the month is specially preferable and the first half of the day is superior to the second half of the day.

8b-9. If the particular tithi for the sake of vratas, etc. is not possible (available) in the first (full) half of the day (but is available for the first two muhUrtas immediately after the sunrise) that pair of muhiirtas should be accepted (for undertaking the Vrata). In the cases of Vratas special to night-time (e.g. (Shiva-ratri), the tithi which spreads the pradofa periods (i.e. 3 muhiirtas or two hours and twentyfour minutes after the sunset) should always be accepted.

10-11a. In the case of a Vrata (holy observance) where the combination of a particular tithi and a constellation is enjoined, the constellation is acceptable if the sun sets while the period of the constellation continues. And the tithi is acceptable if it spreads for a period of three muhUrtas (two hours and twentyfour minutes) after the sunset. Otherwise it won’t yield the fruit (of the Vrata).

11b-12a. In the case of a Vrata based on (i.e. for which it is enjoined) a particular constellation, it is acceptable if the particular constellation and Tithi coexist upto the midnight.

12b-13a. If the (period of the) same constellation covers two midnights in the course of two (consecutive) days, the constellation whose combination with a particular tithi is enjoined (as in the case of Rohini constellation and Astami in Krishna- Janmastami) is meritorious (and hence suitable for the Vrata).

13b-14a. If both the (period of the) constellation and the tithi spread from midnight to midnight (and are available on both the midnights), the former is recommended if its duration is shorter and the latter if its duration is lbnger (the preference thus depends on the length of duration available of a particular lz//u)

14b-15a. If the tithi in combination with the constellation extends over two midnights and there is neither increase or decrease (i.e. they are of equal duration on both the tithis), then both former as well as the latter is acceptable.

15b-16a. The combinations of the constellation Jyesjha with Mula, of Rohini with the constellation Krttika and that of Anuradha with Jyestha are destructive of progeny.

16b-17a. If the Vratas are to be performed during the day-time, the tithis should be auspicious. In case of all rites to be performed at night (e.g. tiiua-rdtri) the combination for that period of night is of special importance.

17b-18a. That Vrata (religious observance) should be performed on that Tithi which is glorified as meritorious (for that Vrata) due to the combination of the particular tithi and constellation. That particular Vrata must be performed on that very tithi by clever persons.

18b. In the case of the Vrata called Sravana Dvada.fi (also called Vamana dvadaSi) in the bright half of Bhadrapada) it must have the combination at the time of the sun-rise.

19-20a. The whole duration of the eclipse of the sun and the moon should be taken as Punyakala (Auspicious period) for Japay etc. The Punyakala in all the Sankrantis (transit of the sun) is being recounted. The benefit is inexhaustable in the case of those who perform ablutions, charitable gifts, Japas, etc. during this period.

20b-21a. The Karkataka Sankrama (the transit to the zodiac of Cancer) is called the Sankrama (transit) of Dakfindyana [The winter solstice when the sun appears to move from the north to the south.] Learned men know that the Punyakdla starts thirty Ghatikds (i.e. 12 hours) before (the actual transit).

21b-22a. In the case of the Sankramas (transits) to the zodiacal signs of Vrsabha (Taurus), Vrscika (Scorpio), Simha (Leo) and Kumbha (Aquarius), eight Muhurtas previous (to the actual transit) are acceptable for ablution, Japa, etc.

22b-23a. In the case of the transit to Tula (Libra) and Mesa (Aries), ten Ghatikds both before and after should be known as conducive to the imperishability of what is given as gift.

23b-24a. О Brahmana, in the case of the transits to Kanya (Virgo) Mithuna (Gemini), Mina (Pisces) and Dhanus (Sagittarius) sixteen Ghatikds after (the transit) should be known as bestowing merit.

24b-25a. They say that the transit to Makara (Capri- cornus) is Uttarayana (the summer solstice marking northward movement of the sun). Here, forty ghatikds before and thirty ghatikds after (the transit) are auspicious.

25b-26a. If the sun and the moon set during their respective eclipses, О leading Brahmana, he must see the clear sphere the next day, take his bath and only then can he take food.

26b-27a. Amavasya (New Moon) is said to be of two kinds by scholars desirous of acquiring piety. (1) Sinivdli when the moon is slightly visible (i.e. amdvdsyd is mixed up with its previous — 14th-JtJAi) and (2) KuhU when the moon is entirely invisible (i.e. when Amdvdsyd is mixed with the first tithi of the next first night).

27b-28a. Sinivdli should be accepted by the Brahmanas who maintain their sacrificial fires, for the purpose of the Sraddha rite, while Kuhu is to be accepted by women, Shudras and the Brahmanas who do not maintain sacrificial fires.

28b.-29a. If the tithi of Amavasyd (the New Moon day) spreads over two afternoons, the former is accepted if its duration is short and the latter, if its duration is longer on that day.

29b-30a. If the New Moon day (Amavasyd) is found to begin from the mid-day only, it is known as BhUta-viddhd (pierced or contacted by the fourteenth-caturdafi-tithi.)

30b-31a. If there is absolute loss of the tithi (i.e. when it is not available for the purpose Sraddha as it is not available either in the afternoon on the first day nor does it reach the post-midday period the next day), the ‘simvalT which spreads over the evening up to sunset (i.e. sdydhna) should be accepted.

31b-32a. If the tithi is available for a short duration but extends upto the sunset (and as such is saydhna-vydpini) the sinivdli on the next day is always acceptable for performance of Sraddha.

32b-33a. If the tithi is extremely extended (i.e. it is available for the after-noon period for both consecutive days) the amdvdsyd which is ‘pierced’ or contacted by Caturdaii should be avoided.

In rites connected with manes (pitrs), KuhU type of Amdvdsyd if available in the after-noon should be accepted.

33b-34a. Just as in the case of Amavasya which is slightly extending, the Amavasya connected with the Caturdaii is to be rejected and the Kuhu extending over the after-noon of the next day is to be accepted (for Sraddha) by eminent scholars (or wise men).

34b-35a. If the new moon day spreads over two middays, either the former or the latter day be accepted for Srdddha, according to one’s wish.

35b-36a. Now I shall explain (the decision of tithis) regarding Anvddhana (depositing fuel of sacred sticks on the sacrificial fire. This precedes the day on which Iffi is to be performed) when the Parvan (the day of the new or full moon, the days of opposition or conjunction) are fully available. The Yaga (////-fortnightly sacrifice) be performed on the prati- pad (the first tithi) 9 О excellent sage.

36b-37a. If one (last) quarter of the parvan day and the first three parts of the Pratipad are available, the morning time is said to be proper for performing the sacrifice according to the learned ones.

37b-38. If the New Moon day or the Full Moon day spread over the two (consecutive) mid-days, the second day is regarded as the day for performing anvadhana and i//i (such combination of anvadhdna and ishfi on the same day is called sadyah kala).

39. If the previous two continue after the sangavcfi part of the day (from six to twelve ghafis after the sunrise) on the next day, the sadyah kdla shall be on the next day. The same holds good when there is ‘loss’ (kshaya) of the tithi (i.e. unavailability of the proper time of the Tithi9 for performance of the rite).

40. All should accept the Ekadashi3 (the eleventh) tithi (for observance of fast) if it is not connected with Dafami. If it is combined with the Daiami, (tenth) tithi (the observance of fast on such contaminated Ekadashi) destroys the merit accumulated during the last three births.®

41. If Ekadashi is known to be present for the duration of a К aid on the DvadaH day and if DvadaH is present in Trayodasi, the latter one (i.e. Dvadasi) is remembered (as acceptable) for fasting.

42. In case pure7 and perfect Ekadashi is known (to be present) in Dvadafi also and Trayodail is only at the end of the night, I shall tell you my decision in the matter.

43. The earlier Ekadashi is to be accepted by householders and the latter one by ascetics, since, householders wish for Siddhi (or prosperity) and the prominent ascetics wish for salvation.

44. If the tithi called Ekadashi is pierced by (i.e. touched by) the Dashami (tenth) day, fast should be observed on that (viddha) Ekadashi, if a duration of one Kald is available for Parana on the Dvadashi day.

45. Whether in the bright half or in the dark half, if the Ekadashi tithi falls on two days, the householders should follow the earlier one and the ascetics the latter one.

46. If the Ekadashi day is slightly mixed with by Dashami but extends to (oris spread over) inDvddaSi, (and thus there is dina^kshaya)f the second Ekadafi only is prescribed for all (i.e. householders and ascetics).

47. If there is no subsequent Dvadashi, the Ekadafi is acceptable even if it is mixed (with Dashaml). If there is subsequent Dvadashi even the unmixed Ekadashi is forbidden.

48. If it happens like this, viz. — Ekadashi is overlapped by Dvadashi and at the close of the night there is TrayodaH, the merit acquired is that of twelve Dvadashis, should the fast be broken on the TrayodaH day.

49-50. In the following case, viz. — There is Ekadashi on the day of Dvadashi for the duration of a Kala and it is doubtful whether there is Dvadashi on the TrayodaH day — the earlier Ekadashi even if it is mixed should be acceptable to householders. The latter one is to be accepted by ascetics and Avirds (i.e. women without sons and husbands).

51. The whole of the Ekadashi is pure, (i.e. extending from sunrise to sunset). It does not overlap on Dvadashi. But Dvadashi overlaps TrayodaH what should be done then?

52. The earlier one should be utilized by householders for the observance and the latter tithi by the ascetics. Some opine that the second day should also be used for fasting devoutly.

53-54. When the Viddhd (pierced) Ekadashi is not known (to be present) on the Dvadashi day; but Dvadashi spreads into TrayodaH — in these circumstances. Others say that the pure Dvadashi is to be undoubtedly used for observance of fast by all. Some say that the previous one must be used for fast. Their opinion is not logically tenable.

55. A householder who has sons should not observe fast or break one during Sankranti that falls on a Sunday or during the solar and lunar eclipses due to Rahu (or is ganita-gamya i.e. astronomically present).

56. If one takes food on a Sunday at day and parvan days at night, on the eighth and the fourteenth days during the day time, or either during the day or during the night on the Ekddaii day he should perform the expiatory penance called СaпАгйуща.

57. On the day of the solar eclipse one shall not take food for three ydmas (1 yama-3 hours) before the eclipse. If he takes food, he will be on a par with the liquor-addict.

58. О excellent sage, if there is an eclipse of the Sun or the Moon in between Anvddhdna and Ish\i (which is on the subsequent day), expiation should be performed by the performers of Taj nos.

59. During the lunar eclipse they should perform Нота repeating the RK Daiame soma etc. or Apydyasva (RV.I.19.16, IX.31.4, VS.12.11.2, TS. 3.2.5.3 (RV.I.21.3) etc. or Somapaste, etc. О Brahmana.

60. Three mantras are cited for the performance of Нота during the solar eclipse — Viz. Udu tyam Jdtavedasam (RV. 1.50.1. AV.XIII.2.16, VS.VII.41) etc. or Asatyena TS.III. 4-11-2 (RV.I.35.2) etc. or Udvayarh tamasah (RV.I.50,.10, VS XX.21), etc.

61. The benefit shall be inexhaustible to that scholarly person who performs Vratas, etc. after deciding the Tithi as laid down in the path of Smrtis.

62. Dharma is that which is enjoined in the Vedas. Keshava is delighted through Dharmas (holy rites). Hence, those who are devoted to the Dharmas attain that greatest region of Vishnu.

63. Those who wish to perform holy rites are indeed ones whose form is identical with that of Krishna. Hence, the sickness of worldly existence never harasses them.”

] Tithi is the time or period required by the moon to gain twelve degrees on the sun to the east. As the motion of the moon is irregular, it takes some times 60 ghafikds, some-times more upto 65 ghafikds and some times less upto about 54 ghafikds. Since Kane wrote this in HD. IV. p. 68, there has been some change in opinion which holds Saptaurddhir data Kshayah i. e. the maximum ghafikds of a tithi are 60+7=67 and the minimum 60 — 10=50 ghafikds. It is obvious that a tithi is not co-terminus with a “civil day”. Hence the need to determine tithis exactly, as every Vedic or Smdrta rite or Vrata must be begun and observed on the exact Time or Tithi. Otherwise, it becomes fruitless (vide the next verse).

Tithis are either Purpd (complete or of 60 full ghafikds) or Sakhandd (mutilated or broken) Sakhaptfa tithis are either Suddhd (extending from sunrise to sunset or in the case of Siuardtri extending to midnight) or Viddhd (pierced

1. e. intermixed or contacted by another tithi). This intermixture or Vedha is of two kinds: morning — Vedha when six ghafikds after the Sun rise a tithi becomes merged with the next Tithi, while evening-Vedha generally occurs when a Tithi contacts another Tithi six ghafikds (or more) before the Sunset.

The knowledge of these technical terms is taken for granted by the author of the NP.

The discussion is essential, as Kdla or time prescribed for an act is a point or occasion (nimitta) and must be seized for gaining the fruit of the act.

2. This is technically known as yugma-vdkya. AP.l75.36-37, GPI. 12 B.16-17. and CG on Kdla p. 67 give the approved and disapproved pairs of such contacted tithis in technical terms. NP. is more plain. According to the principle of yugma-vakya, the following combinations of tithis are favourable, viz. of the 2nd and 3rd tithi, of the 4th and 5th, of the 6th and 7th, of the 8th and 9th, of the 11th and 12th, of the 14th and the Раитщтй (the Full Moon day), of the Amdvdsyd (The New moon day), with the next 1st tithi. The reverse i.e. the combination of other tithis e.g. when the Ekadashi is combined with the Dashami or the examples given in the next verse (s), these are not recommended for fast or Vrata.

Here two terms are used: When a tithi is combined with the previous tithi or 'pierced by the previous tithi it is purva-viddhd (e.g. the 6th with the 5th) and when contacted or 'pierced by the next tithi (e.g. (the 6th tithi combined with the 7th tithi), it is para-viddhd.

3. These works on Astronomy-cum-Astrology use the following terms to symbolize the following numbers e.g. yugma=\yto, Agni — three, Yuga — four, Ndga^mfive, muni = seven, Rudra»eleven, etc.

madhydkna or madhyandina, apardhpa and sdydhna or astamqya (a/J?r.II.3.2.9; RV.V.76.3 for the 1st three parts). Roughly each part gets six ghafikas (starting from the Sun-rise). Hence scuhgava is a period from six to twelve ghafikas after the Sun-rise.

5. This is one of the most important Vratas and in addition to the discussion of this Vrata in Purapas, we have extensive discussion of this Vrata in medieval digests like CC Kdla (pp. 145-288), Madhava's Kdla-nirpqya (pp. 233-75), Vrataraja (pp. 361-475) and independent works like Raghunandana's Ekadashi- tattva. NP. has devoted a number of chapters on this Vrata vide the story of Rukmangada from Ch. 2 ff in the II part. Here the Tithi-nirjicya or decisions on the day on which the fast should be observed are given. These have special importance as the NP., being a VaisQava Purana, decides for Vai?navas, the day on which the Ekadashi should be observed (as under certain conditions they are advised to observe fast on the Dvadasi day in the name of Ekadashi), Moreover, these decisions are found to be observed in the Vaishnavas of Bengal indicating the probable region of the author of the NP.

6. GP.1.125.2 states that the combination of Daiaml with EkSdasi should be avoided for fasting as Gandhari lost all her hundred sons by observing such a fast:

Dafamyekadafi-viddhA Gandhdryd sumupofita / tasydh putraiatam naffron tasmat tam parivarjayet //

I think it is due to у ugma-vaky a (as explained previously) that this combination of Dashami and Ekadaft is not approved. Vaishnavas would prefer fasting on the Dvadasi day even if one Kala of Ekadashi is available at Sun-rise and the rest is a Dvadasi day.

1. О Narada, I shall now explain the rules regarding the expiatory rites.1 Listen. One who has purified his soul by means of expiatory rites shall attain the benefit of all holy observances.

2. О sage, all the rites performed by those who are devoid of (i.e. do not perform) expiatory rites are said to be futile. They are resorted to by Raksasas.

3. Brahmanas must be consulted about Dharma by those who arc desirous of the benefits of all dharmas, are devoid of lust and fury and are experts in the scriptures on Dharma.

4. О leading Brahmana, the expiatory rites performed by those who are averse to Narayana do not sanctify the people even as the rivers cannot purify the pot of wine.

5. These are the five great sinners2 — the slayer of a Brahmana, the wine addict, the thief, the defiler of the preceptor’s bed and those who associate with any or all of these sinners.

6. If any one associates oneself with them by sharing their beds, seats or foodstuffs for a year, he shall be known as- Patita (a fallen man) in regard to all holy rites.

7. If anyone slays a Brahmana unknowingly,3 he should wear bark garments and matted hair. He should also hold the skull of the Brahmana killed by him.

8. If that skull, or any othef article belonging to this man is not available, he should roam the forest holding up that material on a staff like a banner displaying his crime.

9. He should take to things available in the forest for his diet. He should stay there on limited diet for one time per day. He should take bath thrice a day and perform Sandhyd rite duly.

10. He should give up study and teaching of the Vedas, but should all the time remember Hari. He should observe the vow of continuous celibacy and avoid wearing scented garlands, etc.

11. He should visit and stay at holy places and sacred hermitages. If he cannot maintain himself by means of the articles available in forests, he should beg for alms in the villages.

12. He should perform the expiatory rite thus for twelve years and be devoted to Hari. The slayer of a Brahmana then attains purity and becomes worthy of and eligible to perform holy rites.

13-14. The slayer of a Brahmana should perform any of the following rites and attain purity: viz. should he be killed by animals or die due to ailments while observing the expiatory penance, he attains purity. Or he should sacrifice his life to save a cow or a Brahmana or make a gift of ten thousand excellent cows to leading Brahmanas.

15. On killing a Kshatriya who has been consecrated (for the performance of sacrifices, etc.4), the sinner should perform the expiatory rite of a Brahmana-slayer, or enter the funeral pyre or jump off a lofty cliff.

16. On killing a Brahmana who has been so consecreted, the sinner should perform twice the expiatory rites. In the event of killing a preceptor and others, the expiatory rites cited are four times the former.

17. On killing an ordinary Brahmana (by birth only who has not studied the Vedas, etc.), he should perform the expiatory rite for one year. О Brahmana, thus the mode of expiation for killing a Brahmana has been stated.

18. The expiation for a Kshatriya is twice this and that for a Vaisya is thrice: Learned men know that the Shudra who kills a Brahmana is to be pounded to death with a club.

19. The decision in the scriptural texts is this that this punishment is to be meted out by the king himself. If Brahmana women are killed, half the expiation is to be performed and one- fourth in the case of the slaying of a girl.

20-23a. By killing a Brahmana boy not invested with the sacred thread, one should perform one-fourth of the expiatory rite. A Brahmana who kills a Kshatriya should perform the Krcchra5 penance for six years, for three years if it is a Vaishya who is killed and for one year if a Shudra is killed. On killing the wife of a consecrated one, a Brahmana woman, he should perform the expiatory rite for Brahmana-slaughter for eight years. He should certainly become pure. О excellent sage, the expiatory penance enjoined on old men, sick men, women and children in all cases is said to be half as related by learned men.

23b-24a. Wine (spirituous liquor) is of three kinds, Gaudi (that which is prepared from molasses), Paifti (that which is prepared from grain meal) and Madhvi (that which is prepared from honey). О Narada, this should not be drunk by any of the four castes as well as by women, О Narada.

24b-26. О sage, he should take bath and remain pure wearing the wet clothes. Remembering Narayana, he should make one of these, viz., milk, ghee or cow’s urine resemble red- hot iron and drink the liquid then. Then he should pour it into any metallic vessel, iron or copper, and drink it like water and meet death.

27a. It is by this that a wine-addict gets purified. There is no other way of purification.

27b-28a. A Brahmana who drinks wine due to inadvertence or deliberately (due to the belief that it is for his own good) should perform penance enjoined for Brahmana-murder with the difference that the exhibition of a skull on a staff and.such symbols of Brahmahatya should be absent.

28b-29a. If a Brahmana drinks liquor as an antidote for some ailment, he should undergo the rite of investiture with the sacred thread7 once again. Moreover, he should perform two caNarayana penances.

29b-30a. They say that any vessel which comes into contact with the spirituous liquor (is also defiled). Even if water is taken from the liquor pot ’it is on a par with drinking of liquor. So is the eating of camphor.

30b-31. Spirituous liquor is of eleven varieties, viz. Tala, (extracted from palmyra), Panasa (taken from the jack fruit), (Drdkfa (prepared from grapes), Khdrj йга-sambhava (prepared from date fruits), Arif fa (fermented liquor), Madhuka (prepared irom honey). Maireya (specially concocted from Arista and Sura), Ndlikeraja (prepared from coconut palm), Gaudi prepared from molasses), Madhvi (prepared from honey) and Surd (prepared from grain meal).

32-33a. No Brahmana should at any time drink any of these spirituous liquors. If any Brahmana drinks any of these due to ignorance, he is to be invested with the sacred thread once again. He should perform the expiatory penance called Tapta-Krcckra.8

33b-34a. Whether directly or indirectly whether forcibly or clandestinely, the (illegal) taking of other people’s wealth is called Steya (theft) by learned men.

34b-35a The magnitude or (the scale of the weight) of gold has been specified by Manu and others. О leading Brahmana listen. I shall detail it which is the means of relating it to the mode of expiation.

35b-36. The dust particle that is seen in the middle of the beam of the sun coming through the window is called the magnitude of Trasarenu by learned men.9 Eight Trasarenus make one Nifka. Three such Ninkas make one Rajasarshapa.

37-38a. Three Rajasarshapas make one Gaurasarfapa. Six Gaurasarshapas make what is called Yava. Three Yavas make one Krishnala and five Krishnalas make one Masha. О Narada, sixteen Mashas shall make the mass of one Suvarna.

38b-39a. If out of ignorance one steals the wealth of a Brahmana, one should perform Brahma-hatya expiatory penance without the skull on the staff as the banner (symbol of Brahmahatya).

39b-40a. On stealing the gold of preceptors, performers of Yajnas and pious Brahmanas well-versed in the Vedas, the expiatory rite is as follows:

40b-41a. He should repent and apply ghee all over his body. He should then cover himself with dried cowdung (and get himself scorched by fire). If he is thus burned he is liberated from the sin of theft.

41b-42a. If a Kshatriya steals the wealth of a Brahmana, he should repent for it and return it to the owner. Listen to its procedure from me.

42b-43a. He should perform the expiatory penance called Sdntapana and observe fast for twelve days. О celestial sage, he shall then attain purity, otherwise he will become fallen.

43b-44a. Half the expiation is enjoined in the case of thefts of articles resembling gold, viz: jewels, seats, men (servants), womenfolk, cows, plots of lands, etc.

44b-45. A man who steals gold equal to a Trasarenu should perform two Pranaydmas duly.10 He thereby becomes pure. On stealing gold of the size of a Nishka he should perform three Prdridydmas.

46-47a. For stealing gold of the size of a Rajasarsapa, he should perform four Pranaydmas. On stealing gold of the size of Gaurasarfapa the shrewd man should take bath and duly perform the Japa of a thousand and eight Gdyatris.

47b-48a. On stealing gold of the size of a Tava, the sinner should begin to perform the Japa of Vedic mother (i.e. Gayatrl) in the morning and continue it till the evening. The Brahmana sinner should then be purified.

48b. On stealing gold of the size of Krishnala, he should perform the expiatory rite of Sdntapana.

49. The expiation for the theft of gold of the size of a Mdsha is now enjoined. He should regularly eat barley cooked in cow’s urine. He will be purified of his sin in a year.

50. О leading sage, on stealing gold of the complete size of Suvarna, he should perform the Brahma-hatyd expiatory rite with great attention for twelve years.

51. If the act of stealing silver is of a quantity less than a Suvarna magnitude,11 the sinner should duly perform the expiatory penance called Sdntapana. Otherwise, he shall be fallen.

52. О sage, a person who knowingly steals between four and ten Ninkas of silver should perform the CdNarayana penance.

53. If any one steals silver of the size ranging from ten to hundred Nifkas, two CaNarayanas constitute the expiation for his sin.

54. Between a hundred and a thousand Nifkas, he should perform three Candrdyanas. If the stolen quantity exceeds a thousand Nifkas he should perform Brahmahatyd expiatory penance.

the material is mainly bell-metal, iron or load stones, the expiatory rite is stated to be Pardka.la

56. In the case of theft of jewels, the expiation is the same as that of silver. Now the expiatory penance of persons who defile the preceptors’ bed is being stated.

57. If due to inadvertence one cohabits with one’s mother or her co-wife one should cut off one’s own testicles proclaiming one’s own sin13.

58. He should hold the testicle in his hand and proceed towards the South west. While going, he should never consider what is pleasant or what is miserable.

59. He should go ahead without seeing the other persons who go about here and there. He who walks thus till death becomes purified. Or he should fall from a promontory proclaiming his own sin.

60. On cohabiting with a woman of a higher caste unthinkingly the sinner should with great attention perform Brahma-hatya expiatory rite for twelve years.

61. О excellent Brahmana, either unthinkingly or as a regular practice if one cohabits with a woman of his own caste or a higher caste one attains purity on being burned in the fire of dried cow dung balls.

62. If after the sexual intercourse with his mother, the sinner withdraws before the discharge of the semen virile, he should perform the Brahmahatya expiatory rite. If he discharges the semen virile, he should burn himself in the fire.

63. If any one withdraws before the discharge of semen virile in a woman of his own caste or of a higher caste he should perform Brahmahatya expiatory rite for nine years and be devoted to Vishnu.

64. If one cohabits with the Vaisya wife of one’s own father, one should perform the expiatory rite for six years. On cohabiting with the audra wife of the preceptor, one should perform the expiatory rite for three years.

65-66. If due to infatuation one is deluded and cohabits with mother’s sister, father’s sister, preceptor’s wife, wife of the father-in-law, paternal uncle’s wife, maternal uncle’s wife or one’s own daughter, he should duly perform the Brahmahatyd expiatory rite if the sin continues for two days; if the sin is committed for many times on a single day, the expiatory rite should be performed for three years.

67. If the sin is committed only for once, he becomes purified after performing the rite of expiation for a year; if the sin is committed for three days, he should become pure only if he is burnt in fire and not otherwise.

68-69. He who passionately cohabits with a Candala or Puskasa woman, daughter-in-law, sister, friends wife, or disciple’s wife, should perform Brahma-hatyd expiatory rite for six years, О leading sage. He who cohabits without passion should perform Krcchra rite for a year.

70. The expiatory rite for associating with great sinners is being mentioned.14 A person whose soul is sanctified, thanks to the expiatory rite, should attain the benefit of all religious rites.

71. Persons who associate with the great sinners have to perform the respective expiatory rites of those sinners, to be undoubtedly free from those impurities.

72. He who associates with these unknowingly for five days, should perform physical Krcchra rite. Otherwise, he becomes fallen.

73. If the association lasts for twelve days, the expiatory penance called Mahd-sdntapana must be performed. If the association continues for half a month he should observe fast for twelve days.

74. If the association lasts for a month the expiatory rite is Pataka and if the association is for three months the rite of Cdndrdyana has to be performed. If the association is for six months, two Cdndrdyana penances are to be performed.

75. If the association lasts for a period slightly less than a year he should perform the expiatory rite for six months. All these expiatory rites are to be performed three times if the association is knowingly pursued.

76-77. If a Brahmana kills a frog, a mongoose, a crow, a boar, a rat, a cat, a goat, a sheep, a dog or a fowl, he should perform the rite of half a Krcchra.1б The slayer of a horse should perform Atikrcchra rite. In the event of killing an elephant he should perform Taptakrcchra expiation and Pardka if he kills a cow.

78a. No mode of purification is enjoined by learned men in the event of wanton killing of a cow.

78b-82. If any beverage, quilt, seat, flowers, fruits, roots or foodstuffs and edibles are stolen the atonement is through Pahcagavya. If dried wood, grass, trees, jaggery, hides, garments and meat are stolen, he should fast for three nights. On killing any of these, viz. — the sparrow, the ruddy goose, the swan, the Karandava bird, owl, crane, dove, webfoot, parrot, blue jay, white crane, the Gangetic porpoise or the tortoise, the sinner should abstain from food for twelve days. If semen virile, feces or urine is taken in, Prajapatya rite is to be performed.

83-84. Three CaNarayanas are enjoined (as expiatory rites) in the event of taking in the leavings of the Shudra’s food. On touching a woman in her menses, a Candala, a great sinner, a woman recently delivered of a child, a fallen fellow, a man defiled by Ucchiffa (left-over of eaten food) or a washerman and others one should take bath along with the clothes one is clad in. He should take in ghee also.

85-86a. О Brahmana, the man of purified soul should perform the Japa of Gdyatri Mantra one hundred and eight times. On touching any of the above-mentioned persons unwittingly at the time of taking food, one should observe fast for three nights and take in Panchagavya. He should then be purified, О Narada.

86b-87. If at the time of ablution, charitable gifts, Japas, Bhojana (meal), etc., if anyone hears the voice of anyone of these or talks to any of them, he should vomit the food taken in. He should take bath again and observe fast.

88-89a. О Narada, he should take in ghee on the next day after which he shall attain purity. If in the midst of holy rites, even the sound of these is heard, he should perform the Japa of the Gdyatri Mantra, a thousand and eight times.

89b-90a. Censuring Brahmanas and the deities is the vilest of all sins. О Narada, no expiation for this is found in any scripture.

90b-91a. In the case of those sins mentioned by the learned ones to be on a par with great sins, one should duly perform expiatory rites.

91b-92a. If anyone performs the expiatory rites with devotional feelings to Narayana, all his sins perish. Otherwise, he shall be a fallen fellow.

92b-94a. A person who is free from passions, etc. and is endowed with (i.e. fully feels) repentance and is possessed of mercy and kindness to all beings and is alertly devoted to the remembrance of Vishnu, he is absolved of all sins whether he is defiled by great sins or by all sins, as he is devoted to Vishnu.

94b-95a. He who remembers Narayana devoid of beginning and end, the man who remembers the embodiment of the universe and free from ailments, is liberated from crores of sins.

95b-96a. On being remembered, worshipped, meditated upon or bowed to, Vishnu who is stationed in the hearts of the good, does destroy all sins.

96b-97. He who worships Hari in virtue of his association or even delusion, becomes liberated from ail sins. He goes to Vishnu’s region. All the accumulated heaps of pain and distress perish by remembering Vishnu even once.

98-101a. О Brahmana, his attainment of heavenly pleasures and the like can be inferred. О leading sage, rarely indeed is human birth obtained. There too, the devotion to Hari is said to be rarer still. Hence, after attaining the rare human birth, as fleeting and transitory as the streak of lightening, one must devoutly worship Hari who liberates the PaJus (individual Souls) from bondage. All the obstacles perish; purity of the mind is generated and salvation is achieved when Janardana is worshipped.

101b-102a. The eternal Purusarthas (aims of life), viz., virtue, wealth, love and liberation are realized by those who are devoted to Hari’s worship. There is no doubt about this.

102b-103a. О ye men! Do not be arrogant after attaining the human existence consisting of fickle entities namely,, sons, wives, houses, fields, wealth and grain.

103b-104. Eschew your lust and fury, greed and delusion, inebriety and slandering and censure. Cherish the pious feelings towards Hari. Leave off all your activities and worship Janardana.

105-106. The trees in the city of Kftanta (god of Death) are seen close at hand. As long as death does not overtake one, so long as old age has not come, even before the sense organs become incapacitated, one should worship Hari. No sane man should put any faith in the body that is of a perishing nature.

107. Death is ever near; riches are too unsteady and fickle and the death of the body is imminent. Hence, leave off pride and arrogance.

108. All unions end in separation; everything is transitory and transient. Knowing this, О blessed one, worship Janardana.

109-110a. One only increases one’s miseries by hopes. Liberation is too rare and inaccessible. Even the great sinner who worships Vishnu with devotion attains the greatest abode on reaching which none is subjected to affliction.

110b-111a. О excellent one, all holy centres, all sacrifices (Tajnas), and the Vedas with their ancillary subjects are not worth even a sixteenth part of the worship of Narayana.

111b-112. If people are devoid of devotion to Vishnu, of what use are the Vedas, scriptures, sacrifices and pilgrimages to holy centres. Of what avail are austerities and holy rites?

113. Those men who worship Vishnu of infinite forms, comprehensible through Vedantas, attain the region of Acyuta. Those who see the excellent deity as pervasive as the firmament, who is the plysician that cures the illness of worldly existence, attain the region of Acyuta.

114. On remembering the primordial Atman who possesses infinite power, who is the support of Universe, who is worthy of being worshipped by Devas, whose form is brilliant and who is called Acyuta, a man attains to his true friend.

1. The term prdyaScitta is variously derived but most digest-writers and commentators of Dharma-Shastra regard it a combination of prdyas (Penance) + citta (Resolve). Plainly it means “A resolve to undergo penance (in the belief that it will absolve one of sins). Hemadri thinks that (he term cannotes a special act in atonement of sin (prdyaicittatiabdah pdpakfaydrthe nahmttike karmaoitefe variate / CC — PrQyatcitta, p. 989). Balambhatti on Ydjli. Sm?. III. 206 regards Prdyah (a sin)+citta (purification) and quotes an authority to support the view that prdyaicitta is purification from sins:

The NP. regards faith in NkrSyana as the condition precedent, without which all expiatory acts will be futile (see V. 4).

2. Sins are classified in three categories (1) Mahd-pdtakas (Great sins), (2) Ati- pdtakas (Super-sins) and (3) Upa-pdtakas (minor sins). This verse enumerates the mahd-pdtakas. It is worth noting that wine drinking is a ‘great sin and association with the sinners is also a great sin.

The general expiation for these mahd-pdtakas requires the following penance r (1) Three baths per day; (2) stay in a thatched cottage alone in a forest; (3) sleep on bare ground; (4) subsistence on roots, fruits and leaves (5) eating only once a day; (6) if the sinner enters a village for begging, he should proclaim his sin.

3. W. 7-17 deal mainly with the homicide of a Brahmana. The act can be expiated if done unknowingly. W 7-12 refer to slaying a Brahmana whose death affects the continuity of the Vedic lore. For billing an ordinary Brah- mana, the expiation is for one year only, i.e. 1/12 of the expiation of killing a knower of a Veda. This is the precaution taken by the society, to preserve our literary and cultural tradition by prescribing a deterrent punishment. Dharma Sutras of Gautama, Apastamba, Vi?ou and Smrtis of Manu (XI.72-82), Yajfiavalkya (II1.243-50) and AP. 169.1.4, 173. 7-8 prescribe practically the same type of penances for slaying a Brahmaoa and cover the penances given in the NP., though he (Manu) gives some other penances as well.

4. It is noteworthy that a K?attriya Who has been consecrated for performance of a sacrifice is equated with a Brahmaiia.

6. W. 23b — 33a deal with the expiations for the second Mahdpdpa — wine- drinking. The varieties of wines are detailed in Verses 23b-24a and 30b-31. It appear? that wine-drinking was regarded worse than Brahmana-slaughter, and death-penal tv in a painful way is prescribed for it. For drinking spirituous liquor inadvertently, the penance of a Brahmaqa-slaughtcr is laid down in W. 24-28.

Here NP. is repeating this way of death penalty for wine-drinking which has been already prescribed in Dh.Ss of Apastamba (1.9.25.3), Gautama (23,1) Baudhiyana (II.1.21) and the Smrtis of Manu (XI.90-91) and Yajftavalkya (III.253).

7. The second upanayana (investiture of sacred thread) seems to be symbolic. Afvalayana Gr. S. (1.22.22-26) prescribes cutting of hair and medhdjanana as optional; there is no mention of rules regarding time of this upanayana and the verse to be recited as Sivitri is RV.V.82.1 and not the regular Gayatrt Mantra (RV.III.62.10.)

9. W 35b-38a give the weights used for weighing gold. It is the same as in Мали VIII. 132-135.

=A particle of dust seen in the Sun-beam coming through a window «>1 rrifka (called likfa by Manu) в 1 Raja saryapa в 1 Gaura sarfapa

Some of these terms are found in some other Smrtis and the К au tally a Artha-SastrOj the difference in terms and their equation (if any) is due to difference of Time and region.

10. The NP. (W. 44b-50) has decided the punishment or PrAyaScitta for stealing gold according to its weight.

weight of the stolen gold 1 Trasarepu 1 nifka 1 Rajasatfapa 1 Gastrasarfapa 1 yava

Bath and Japa of Gayatri 1008 times. Japa of Gayatri from morning (Sun-rise) to evening (Sun-set).

11. W. 51-54 declare the PrSyaicitta to be performed by a thief of silver -depending on the weight of the metal as follows:

Between 4 to 10 nifkas From 10 to 100 Nifkas from 100 to 1000 Nifkas More than 1000 Nifkas

A penance requiring continuous fast for twelve days and observance of self-control (vide Manu XI.215, Yfijfiavalkya III. 320 A.P.171-10).

13. Incest with one's preceptor's wife or one's mother or step-mother is to be expiated with the incision of the organ and to go on walking with his testicles in one’s hand and proclaiming the sins till one falls dead. This has been prescribed since the days of Dharma Sutras. For example:

UAgam ой saorfapam utkrtyd Hjaldvddhdya dakfioapratlcim orajed ajihmam d-Sartra-pdtdt /

Мали XI.105 repeats the same. But the NP. does not lay down the other punishment, viz. lying on a red-hot iron bed or embracing a red hot iron image of a woman, though the Dharma Sutras and Manu prescribe that alternatively. But the NP. prescribes leap from a precipice, which is its special view.

The prdyaicittas for other cases of incest vary in various Smftis. NP.'s views are stated in w. 60-69.

14. As stated above, association with the four types of grave sinners mentioned above, is regarded as a serious sin and Manu XI. 181, Yajfiavalkya III. 261 provided that a person associating with a person guilty of serious sins (Mahd- pdtakas) should undergo the same Prayaicitta as is prescribed for the Mahd- pdpa. NP. voices the same view but he takes a lenient view and prescribes milder prdyaScittas of shorter duration as compared with those for the original sinners. Kulluka, Vijfianesvara and other commentators state that the Prdyai- citta in such cases is a Vrata and as such should not be extended to or involve death of the performer of the Praia.

15. W 76-92a deal with miscellaneous sins. Smrti-writers (e.g. Manu XI. 133-37, Yajft III. 269-74) have prescribed various expiatory rites for them. The NP. agrees with some. The NP. emphasizes that slandering gods and Brahmapas is a great sin from which there is no absolution (89b-90). The main point is that if one is devoted to Lord Narayapa and undergoes expiatory rites, he becomes free from sins. In extolling devotion to Vi?i?u, NP. asserts that all sins are destroyed by remembering (or worshipping or meditating on) Hari. He concludes: All heaps of miseries instantly disappear if Lord Vishnu is remembered but once (V. 97).

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