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Noun as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian languages





 

1. Noun as a part of speech: general characteristics.

2. The category of number.

3. The category of case.

4. The category of gender.

5. The category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects.

The noun is the most numerous lexico-grammatical class of lexemes. It is but natural that it should be divided into subclasses. From the grammatical point of view most important is the division of nouns into countables and uncountables with regard to the category of number and into declinables and indeclinables with regard to the category of case.

All other classifications are semantic rather than grammatical. Thus, in Ukrainian, for example, there are differentiated the following lexico-grammatical classes of nouns in regard to their semantic and morphological characteristics:

1) concrete and abstract nouns (іменники конкретні й абстрактні: ложка, паркімовірність, кохання);

2) names of living beings and lifeless objects (назви істот і неістот: студент, дочкатехнікум, завод);

3) common and proper nouns (власні й загальні назви: Роман, Ірина, Львів, Канададівчина, хлопець, місто, держава);

4) material nouns (матеріально-речовинні: фтор, золото, кисень, нафта);

5) collective nouns (збірні: кіннота, огудиння, студентство, листя).

In English we also have abstract and concrete nouns. Many abstract nouns (pride, darkness, etc.) are uncountables, but so are many concrete nouns (wool, peasantry, etc.).

The group of collective nouns mentioned in many grammars is grammatically not homogeneous. Some collective nouns are countables (government, family, etc.), others are not in English (foliage, peasantry, etc.).

English material nouns are a peculiar group of uncountables, for example: air, iron, sugar, silver. Proper nouns are another, even more peculiar, group of uncountables (though sometimes they form number opposemes, e.g.: Brown – the Browns (in English). In Ukrainian proper nouns are mostly singular though the plural form can also be met, e.g.: два Чернігови.

The English noun as a part of speech comprises the following features:

1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of “substantivity”.

2. Typical stem-building morphemes, as in: pacif -ist, work -er, friend -ship, manage -ment, etc.

3. The grammatical categories of number and case.

4. Typical combinability: left-hand connections with articles, prepositions, adjectives, possessive pronouns (also demonstrative pronouns, some indefinite and negative pronouns), other nouns, etc.; right-hand connections with nouns (creating the so called noun clusters), verbs.

5. The typical syntactic function of a subject, an object, a complement or a predicative, less frequently attribute or other parts of the sentence.

The mentioned above five properties for distinguishing parts of speech serve as the basis for comparison or tertium comparationis in comparison of the English noun with its Ukrainian counterpart.

1. The lexico-grammatical meanings are similar.

2. The variety of lexico-grammatical morphemes is much greater for the Ukrainian noun.

The peculiarity of Ukrainian is also the abundance of “subjective appraisal” suffixes (both diminutive as in дівч атк о, нос ик, дівчин оньк а, etc., and augmentative as in вовч ищ е, камен юк а,нос яр а).

3.1. The Ukrainian language possesses the category of gender which is absent in English. The category of gender in Ukrainian is a lexico-grammatical one, since not only grammatical features but also the semantic ones (that is a division according to sex, age) are taken into account: дід – баба, син – дочка, качка – каченя.

In both languages we find the categories of number and case. But their opposemes, especially those of the category of case, differ greatly in the two languages:

a) a Ukrainian case opposeme contains six (or seven if we take into account the vocative case) members unlike the English two-member case opposeme;

b) in English the “singular number, common case” grammeme is as a rule not marked. In Ukrainian any grammeme can be marked, e.g.: рука, вікно, etc.;

3.2. In both languages nouns can be divided into countables and uncountables, the latter into – singularia tantum (однинні іменники) and pluralia tantum (множинні іменники). In both languages uncountables have an oblique meaning of “number” through the analogy in form and combinability with countables.

4. Typical combinability of Ukrainian nouns differs from English nouns in the way that it is not connected with articles since such a part of speech is absent within the Ukrainian grammatical system. So, the left-hand connections of the Ukrainian noun are the following: prepositions, adjectives, possessive pronouns (also demonstrative pronouns, some indefinite and negative pronouns). Unlike the English noun the Ukrainian noun cannot be combined with other nouns, forming neither left-hand, nor right-hand connections (compare the so called English noun clusters). The right-hand connections of the Ukrainian noun are uniquely with verbs.

5. The typical syntactic functions of Ukrainian noun mainly coincides with those of the English noun, that is: of a subject, an object, a complement or a predicative, adverbial circumstances. The only exception is that the Ukrainian noun is not used as an attribute.

***

At present almost the only grammatical category of a noun, which is undisputable in English and Ukrainian, is the category of number (категорія числа). Both languages have two numbers: the singular number and the plural number.

The category of number of English nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl – girls, foot – feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for one object or more than one, in other words, whether its grammatical meaning is of “oneness” or “more than oneness” of objects. The plural form of English nouns is almost unchangeable.

The Ukrainian language has a more complicated way of plural form building. Each declension of nouns (відміна іменників) has another ending, e.g.: nouns of the first declension have in the nominative case plural the ending (машина – машини), (межа – межі), (надія – надії); the second declension possesses accordingly the endings: (робітник – робітники). (коваль – ковалі), (місто – міста), (море – моря); nouns of the third declension have the endings: (відповідь – відповіді, ніч –ночі); of the fourth declension -ята (гусеня – гусенята), -ата (курча – курчата), -ена (ім’я – імена). In Ukrainian the plural of noun is opposed to the singular not only by the form of nominative case, but by the whole system of six cases.

Those nouns that cannot be counted or s ingularia tantum (однинні іменники) have as a rule the singular form, and, in fact, are altogether deprived of the category of number. In both languages these are the following groups of nouns:

a) collective nouns (збірні) – (cavalry, humanity, кіннота, людство);

b) nouns determining the substance or the mass (які позначають речовину або масу) (copper, glass, мідь, скло);

c) abstract nouns (абстрактні) – (knowledge, health, знання, здоров’я).

The group of pluralia tantum (множинні іменники) is mostly composed of nouns denoting objects consisting of two or more parts, complex phenomena or ceremonies, e.g. tongs, pincers (щіпці, кліщі), trousers, nuptials (весілля, весільна церемонія). Here also belong some nouns with a distinct collective or material meaning, e.g. clothes, sweets, eaves (повіки, вії (поет.)).

***

The category of case of nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl – girl’s in English, хата – хати – хаті – хату – хатою – (на) хаті – хато in Ukrainian) showing the relations of a noun to other words in speech. Case relations reflect the relations of the substances the nouns name to other substances, actions, states, etc. in the world of reality. Case is the grammatical form of a noun, which reveals its relation towards other words fulfilling the functions of parts of the given sentence.

An English noun lexeme may contain two case opposemes at most (man – man’s, men – men’s). Some lexemes have but one opposeme (England – England’s, cattle – cattle’s). Many lexemes have no case opposemes at all (book, news, foliage). That is not true for the Ukrainian language.

Traditional school grammars express the view that modern English has two noun cases: the Common Case (загальний відмінок) and the Possessive Case (присвійний відмінок, інколи називають родовий).

The common case is the form in which the English noun can fulfill functions of almost all parts of a sentence. The possessive case has two main usages: a) the dependent possessive case (залежний присвійний відмінок), which always fulfills the function of the attribute and the b) independent possessive case, which is used independently without the noun that follows it (very often these nouns could be the words: house, office, shop, e.g.: at my friend’s, to the baker’s (до крамниці булочника).

In Ukrainian the noun has a very complicated system of declension (система відмінювання). This system consists of six cases: the nominative case, the genitive case, the dative case, the accusative case, the instrumental case and the local or locative case. Besides, all the nouns that are the names of living beings and the names of lifeless objects, used in the transferred meaning or personified, have the seventh case – the so-called vocative form (клична форма), which is used at addressing: брате, земле.

The mentioned above six cases have peculiar endings for all the nouns of the Ukrainian language. According to the type of ending there are differentiated four declensions of Ukrainian noun:

The first declension – includes nouns of the feminine gender with the nominative case singular ending -а, -я (наука, земля), and some group of nouns of the masculine gender and the common case (спільного роду) (Микола, Ілля, голова, суддя).

The second declension – includes the biggest part of nouns of the masculine and the neuter gender. Only those nouns of the masculine gender which have the final hard consonant or softened consonant and those having the ending –й, -о (робітник, ключ, день, чай, батько) belong to this declension. Among the neuter gender nouns this declension includes all the nouns ending in -о, -е, -я (except those that acquire the suffixes -ят, -ен in indirect cases), the latter usually have the doubling of the final consonant of the stem (озеро, дерево, поле, бажання, обличчя).

The third declension – includes all the nouns of the feminine gender with the hard or the soft final consonant (ніч, любов, тінь, радість) and the noun мати, which in indirect cases acquires the suffix -ер (матері).

The fourth declensio n – includes the nouns of the neuter gender with the endings -а, -я, denoting the names of little according to their age creatures/beings or some minute things as well as the noun ім’я. In indirect cases these nouns have the suffix -ат, -ят and the noun ім’я has the suffix -ен: теля – теляти, лоша – лошати, ім’я – імені.

***

The category of gender is expressed very distinctly by the nouns of the Ukrainian language. The grammatical gender of the noun is determined according to some characteristics, namely: the meaning of the word, its morphological structure (suffixes, flexions) and the syntactic connections in the sentence (forms of coordinated (узгоджений) adjectives, pronouns, verbs). The word ending has a great importance in determining the gender of a noun – the name of the lifeless object. The characteristic ending of the feminine gender in Ukrainian is the ending - а (я) and the hard or the soft consonant (шахта, земля, ніч, повість), of the neuter gender - о, -е (вікно, поле). Nouns of masculine gender usually end in a consonant (чоловік, учитель, студент). In plural nouns of all genders in the Ukrainian language have similar endings, in other words, the forms of plural now, in fact, do not render gender characteristics. That is why nouns that are used only in plural (ворота, вила, окуляри, висівки, покидьки) do not have gender.

***

Some linguists believe that besides the categories of number, case, gender, the noun can also express some other categories. Thus, according to Yu.O. Zhluktenko, there can be differentiated the category of the names of living beings and lifeless objects (категорія назв істот та неживих предметів). The consistent (послідовний) grammatical expression of the category of names of living beings and lifeless objects is pertaining in Ukrainian only to the names of persons. This noun class has also the peculiar vocative case form (особлива клична відмінкова форма): хлопче, жінко etc. The names of lifeless objects can be used in the vocative form only in the case of personification.

 

Lecture 2.1.

1. Adjective as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian languages:

1.1. Adjective as a part of speech: general characteristics. Grammatical categories of adjective.

1.2. Degrees of comparison of adjectives.

2. Numeral as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian languages:

2.1. Numeral as a part of speech: general characteristics.

2.2. Grammatical categories of numeral.

 

 

In both languages adjectives as a class of lexemes are subdivided into qualitative adjectives which directly express some characteristic features and qualities of some objects or substances (якісні, що безпосередньо передають ознаку предмета) (e.g., large, white, heavy; великий, білий, важкий) and relative adjectives that express some characteristics bound with the relation to some other object or phenomenon (відносні, що передають ознаку, зв’язану з відношенням до іншого предмета чи поняття) (e.g., former, wooden, silken; колишній, дерев’яний, шовковий). Both in English and in Ukrainian the division line between qualitative and relative adjectives is a conventional (умовний) one.

The peculiar feature of the English language is the existence of quantitative adjectives (кількісні прикметники): little, few (мало), much, many (багато). The Ukrainian language in its turn also possesses a peculiar group of adjectives, not present in English. By their meaning these adjectives, called possessive adjectives (присвійні прикметники), express belonging of some object to this or that person or creature, from the name of whom they are created, e.g.: батьків, братів, сестрин. Андріїв, Ганнин, учителева, шкільне.

According to their morphological structure adjectives are divided in Ukrainian into two groups: full adjectives (повні або членні) – these are adjectives with flexions, e.g.: певний, повний, and short adjectives (короткі або нечленні) – without flexions, e.g.: винен, годен, повен, певен. English adjectives do not have any endings and consist of the “pure” base, so according to their structure they are similar to Ukrainian short adjectives.

The English adjective as a part of speech is characterized by the following typical features:

1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes (of substances) / quality (of substances)”. It should be understood that by attributes we mean different properties of substances, such as their size (large, small), colour (red, blue), position in space (upper, inner), material (wooden, woolen), psychic state of persons (happy, furious), etc.

2. The typical stem-building affixes -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive,
-ic, un-, pre-, in-
, etc.

3. The morphological category of the degrees of comparison (The absence of the category of number distinguishes English adjectives from adjectives in all other Germanic languages).

4. The characteristic combinability: right-hand connections with nouns (a beautiful girl), and the pronoun one (the grey one); left-hand connections with link-verbs (… is clever), adverbs, mostly those of degree (a very clever boy).

5. Its typical syntactic functions are those of an attribute and a predicative complement.

Following is the comparison of the basic features of English and Ukrainian adjectives.

1. The lexico-grammatical meanings are essentially the same.

2. The Ukrainian adjective has a greater variety of stem-building affixes than its English counterpart.

The so-called “suffixes of subjective appraisal” (as in дрібн е­сеньк ий, багат ющ ий, син юват ий, велич езн ий etc.) are alien to the English adjective (the only exception is -ish in whitish, reddish, etc.).

3.1. The English adjective does not have the grammatical categories of gender, number and case, which were lost already in the Middle English period. The categories of gender (довгий – довга – довге), number (довгий – довгі) and case (довгий, довгого, довгому, etc.) of Ukrainian adjectives are merely forms of grammatical relation of adjectives regarding the modified words, the forms of adjective agreement with them. Therefore, adjectival grammemesin English are monosemantic (i.e. having but one grammatical meaning), while in Ukrainian an adjective grammeme is usually polysemantic, e.g. the grammeme represented by розумна carries the grammatical meanings of “feminine gender”, “singular number”, “nominative case” and “positive degree”.

3.2. In Ukrainian as well as in English the category of the degrees of comparison is represented in three-member opposemes, but there are some distinctions.

4. The combinability of adjectives is to some extent similar in the two languages. Yet there are some differences. In English one can speak only of two levels of combinability: lexical and lexico-grammatical. In Ukrainian grammatical combinability is of great importance too. Compare: білий стіл, біла стеля, білих стін, etc.

5. In both languages the typical functions of adjectives in the sentence are those of attribute (white wall – біла стіна) and predicative or the nominal part of a compound nominal predicate (This girl is beautiful. – Ця дівчина прекрасна.).

***

The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (like long-longer-longest, довгий-довший-найдовший) showing quantitative distinctions of qualities.

Accordingly we speak in both languages of the “ positive” (long, good, beautiful, довгий, хороший, красивий), “comparative” (longer, better, more beautiful, довший, кращий, красивіший/більш красивий) and “ superlative” (longest, best, most beautiful, найдов­ший, найкращий, найкрасивіший/найбільш красивий) degrees.

The difference between Ukrainian and English adjectives, first of all, lies in the form of expression of degrees of comparison.

Ukrainian comparative degree adjectives have two forms of expression – the simple (synthetic) and the composite (analytical) ones (проста і складена).

The simple form of the comparative degree is formed in the following way: the base of the positive degree is combined with suffixes -іш, -ш and the case or gender ending (біл-ий, біл-іш-ий, біл-іш-і). Some adjectives have the suppletive foms of formation (гарний – кращий).

The composite form of the comparative degree is formed with the help of words більш/менш and the positive degree adjective.

Ukrainian superlative degree adjectives have three forms of expression – simple, complex and composite (проста, складна і складена).

The simple form is created from the comparative degree form with the help of the prefix най-: вищий – найвищий.

The complex form is combining of the superlative degree form with particles як, що: якнайдовший, щонайсильніший.

The composite form is formed with the help of using words-antonyms найбільш/найменш with the positive degree form: найбільш вибагливий, найменш примхливий.

The synthetic form of the superlative degree adjectives can acquire the elative meanings, that is render the largest degree of some quality without comparing it with qualities of other objects, e.g.: найширші кола читачів, без найменших зусиль.

Ukrainian relative and possessive adjectives do not have features characteristic of Ukrainian qualitative adjectives, that is they do not form degrees of comparison, they cannot combine with adverbs, and they do not have antonymous counterparts.

In both languages there is a certain group of adjectives, the degrees of comparison of which are formed in a suppletive way (that is from another base), compare: in Ukrainian великий–більший–найбільший, малий–менший–найменший, поганий–гірший–найгір­ший, хороший–кращий (or ліпший) –найкращий (найліпший) and in English many/much–more–the most, little–less–the least, bad–worse–the worst, good–better–the best.

In Ukrainian the forms of comparative and superlative degrees are changed, the same as forms of the positive degree, according to genders, numbers and cases in correspondence with the forms of the noun with which they are connected. In English forms of all degrees of comparison of adjectives are similarly indeclinable.

***

In both languages numerals are divided into cardinal (кількісні числівники one, two, один, два) and ordinal (порядкові числівники the first, the second, перший, другий). Ordinal numerals are formed from the cardinal ones by adding the suffix -th in English, and in Ukrainian – the adjectival endings -ий, -а, -е.

Ukrainian cardinal numerals have the peculiar group of indefinite numerals (неозначені числівники): кілька, декілька, багато, чимало, стільки, кільканадцять, кількадесят. Besides Ukrainian numerals possess such a peculiar subgroup as collective numerals (збірні числівники двоє, обоє, троє, четверо), denoting a certain quantity of objects as a whole.

One more peculiarity of the system of Ukrainian numerals is the caressing forms or diminutive forms of collective numerals (пестливі форми збірних числівників): двійко, двойко, двоєчко, трійко, четвірко, обойко and others. The English language does not have collective numerals and diminutive forms are met only by nouns (sonny, Johny). Some meanings of indefinite quantity are expressed here with the help of quantitative adjectives and adverbs (кількісні прикметники та прислівники): many, much, few, little, a little.

The basis of counting in both languages is the decimal system (в основі лічби обох мов лежить десяткова система). That is why the structure of numerals’ system formation does not have a big difference. As to their stem structure English and Ukrainian numerals fall into:

1) Simple or root numerals (прості числівники), such as one, two, three (in English from one to twelve), один, два, три (in Ukrainian from one to ten and the numeral ‘ сорок’).

2) Derivative numerals (похідні числівники) formed with the help of the suffixes -teen (from thirteen to nineteen these numerals have the double stress: 'four'teen), -ty (from twenty to ninety) in English. In Ukrainian the numerals from 11 to 19 are formed by the way of adding the suffix –надцять (which is created from the word group “ на десяте одинадцять) to the numerals of the first ten. Ukrainian numerals denoting tens are formed with - дцять (тридцять). The exceptions in Ukrainian are only two numerals сорок and дев’яносто.

3) Compound numerals (складні числівники) in English (from twenty-one to ninety-nine);

4) Composite numerals (складені числівники), such as nine hundred and three in English and in Ukrainian двадцять один, вісімсот вісімдесят are formed in both languages according to the general principle.

The English numeral as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:

1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of “number”;

2) such typical stem-building suffixes as -teen, -ty;

3) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes like seven – seventh;

4) its unilateral combinability with nouns (three children, the third child);

5) its syntactic function as an attribute, less frequently as some other part of the sentence.

The lexico-grammatical meaning of “number” is not to be confused with the grammatical meaning of “number”. Numerals are usually divided into two groups, as it has been mentioned above, – cardinal numerals (one, five, twenty) and ordinal numerals (first, fifth, twentieth). The former denote some numerical quantity, the latter – some numerical order.

English and Ukrainian numerals are similar as to their lexico-grammatical meanings, ways of stem-building, combinability and syntactic functions, but they differ greatly regarding their grammatical categories.

1) Unlike their English counterparts, Ukrainian numerals possess the categories of gender (третій – третя – третє), case (три – трьох – трьом), and number (перший – перші).

2) There is a great difference between ordinal and cardinal numerals in Ukrainian as far as their categories are concerned. Ordinal numerals resemble adjectives not only in having the categories of number, gender and case, but in the forms of the grammatical morphemes as well. Compare: третій – мужній, третього – мужнього, etc. Cardinal numerals do not possess the categories of number and gender (with the exception of один, два). Therefore, the numeral in English is an indeclinable part of speech, whereas in Ukrainian it is declined according to the same six cases as nouns.

The combinability of English and Ukrainian numerals is rather limited. As a rule, they form combinations with nouns. Numerals usually precede the nouns they modify, e.g.: three boys – три хлопці, first day – перший день. Numerals, as a rule, are not modified by other words. This negative combinability is also a characteristic feature of the part of speech.

Lecture 2.2.







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