The Composite Sentence. The Complex Sentence

The complex sentence, like the simple and compound sentences, presents a universal unit in the syntactic systems of all 5, 651 languages of the world. Consequently, this type of the composite sentence has some isomorphic features of its own. In the contrasted languages they are as follows: 1) the complex sentence has a poly-predicative nature; 2) it is characterized by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some logical-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include predicative, objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the corresponding clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding position/place in regard to the matrix clause.

The subject clause. This type of subordinate sentence or clause performs the function of the subject in regard to the principal clause. If such a type of clause is eliminated then the principal clause becomes incomplete and loses its sense.

In English such sentences are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if and the connective words (сполучні слова) who, what, which, the pronouns whatever, whoever, whichever, the pronominal adverbs where, when, why, how, e.g.:

That he has made this mistake is strange. Whether he will come is uncertain.

Ukrainian subject clauses are most often connected with the help of relative pronouns хто, що in the form of different cases. The main clause necessarily contains the correlative (or demonstrative) word which performs the function of the formal subject, most often these are such words as – той, та, те, ті, or весь (вся, все, всі). Compare: Перемагає той, хто невідступно бореться. Всі, хто побачив його, вклонилися.

The predicative clause. Clauses of this type are connected with the help of auxiliary part of the compound predicate of the principal clause and substitute or complement its predicative member (that is the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate). In English such sentences are connected with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, and the connective words what, who, why, where, how, when, e.g.: This is what I have thought for the last fifteen years.

In Ukrainian predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хто, що, який, щоб and others. The principal clause contains necessarily the correlative word той (та, те, ті), or такий (така, таке, такі), e.g.:

Він не такий, щоб без діла сидіти. Ми – ті, що ви хотіли бачити.

The object/objective clause. English object clauses are connected by means of the conjunctions that, whether, if and those connective words that are used for subject and predicative subordinate clauses. The asyndetic connection of object clauses is also widespread.

In Ukrainian the most characteristic conjunctions of object clauses are що and щоб. Besides, the following connective words are also widely used: pronouns хто, що, який, чий, котрий, стільки; adverbs як, де, куди, звідки, коли, чому, нащо. Compare: We didn't forget that our destination was far away. Ми не забували, що до мети ще далеко.

Attributive clauses. In English attributive clauses are joined to the principal clause with the help of the following connective words: relative pronouns who, which, that, relative adverbs when, where, why or they can be joined without conjunctions at all.

In the Ukrainian language the attributive clause is typically connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words який, чий, хто, що, котрий in different forms. More rarely they are joined with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки, коли, як. Sometimes attributive clauses are connected with the help of the conjunctions як, ніби, наче, неначе, мов, немов, and others.

1) restrictive attributive clauses are tightly connected with a certain word of the main clause performing the function of its attribute, e.g.:

There was a small stone at that corner of the room which was the nearest to the master's desk.

У тому кутку кімнати, що був найближче до столу вчителя, був невеликий камінь.

2) descriptive attributive clauses also belong to one member of the main clause but are not connected with it so tightly, e.g.:

The manager of our office, who is a highly educated man, speaks several foreign languages.

Менеджер нашої установи, який є високоосвіченим, розмовляє кількома іноземними мовами.

Adverbial clauses of place. In both languages the sentences of such a type characterize the action of the main or principal clause, pointing towards its place or direction.

English sentences are joined to the main clause with the help of the connective words where, wherever, whence. Ukrainian adverbial clauses of place are connected with the principal clause with the help of the connective words де, куди, звідки (розм. відкіль, звідкіль). For example:

I shall go where my brother lives. Я поїду туди, де живе мій брат.

The adverbial clauses of time are joined in English to the main one with the help of the conjunctions when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since, as long as, etc. In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of time are joined with the help of the following connective words and conjunctions: коли, відколи, поки (розм. покіль), аж поки, доки (розм. докіль), аж доки, як після того як, в міру того як, тільки, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве, скоро and others. For example:

Where there is a will, there is a way. Я пізнав це місце, як тільки його побачив.

Adverbial classes of manner (attending circumstances) are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions as, the way, as if, as though. They point out in what way the action of the main clause takes place. Rather often such a sentence bears in its meaning some sort of comparison, connected with the shade of suggestion, e.g.: You speak so as if you did not know me.

In Ukrainian such subordinate sentences are joined with the help of the connective word як and the conjunctions: як, ніби, мoв, немов, наче, неначе, ніж (розм. аніж), що and others. All of them (except ніж) have a correlative word так in the main clause, which is concretized by the subordinate sentence: Він ішов так, наче добре знав дорогу.

Adverbial clauses of measure or degree In English such sentences are connected with the main clause with the help of the conjunctions as…as, so…as, as, as if, as though, not so...as and others, e.g.: He played so well that everybody admired him. are very close in their meaning to adverbial clauses of manner.

In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of measure or degree also include clauses joined with help of double conjunctions чим…тим, що…то, чим…то and others, for example: Чим вище дерево, тим глибше йде коріння.

Adverbial clauses of purpose. English adverbial clausesof purpose are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest, for fear (that). For example: I speak slowly so that you may understand me.

In Ukrainian such clauses are joined most often by the conjunctions щоб and для того щоб, less often by – аби, for example: Він піде туди, щоб почути все самому.

Adverbial clauses of cause are joined in English to the main clause with the help of the conjunctions because, as, since, now that. For example: I went away because there was no one there.

In Ukrainian conjunctions most frequently used in adverbial clauses of cause are as follows: бо, тому що, через те що, тим що, від того що, що, а що, а як and others. The most typical of them are бо, тому що, через те що, for example: Він не ходить на збори, тому що боїться критики.

Adverbial clauses of condition. In English the adverbial clauses of condition are joined with the help of the conjunctions if, unless, but that, in case, provided, suppose, supposing and others. For example: He is sure to come unless he has some urgent work to do.

In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of condition are connected with the help of the conjunctions коли, якщо, як, як тільки, аби, скоро, раз and others. For example: Якби я знала, що діждуся, що побачу, то ще б підождала (Т. Шевченко).

Adverbial clauses of concession are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions and the connective words though (although), in spite of the fact that, notwithstanding that, whoever, whatever, however, no matter that. For example: Though it was only nine o'clock, there were few people in the streets.

In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of concession are joined with the main clause by means of the conjunctions and the connective words хоч (хоча), хай (нехай), дарма що, незважаючи на те що, як не, скільки не and others. For example: Хоч уже листя падало, осінню пахло, а проте було тепло та ясно (П. Мирний).

Adverbial clauses of result are joined in English to the main sentence with the help of the composite conjunction so that or the conjunction that, which has as its correlative the demonstrative adverb so. For example: The weather was so bad that the plane could not start.

Ukrainian adverbial clauses of result have the same type of conjunction так що (й): Підхопили всі, всі враз і з усіх сил, так що коні шарахнулися набік (Ю. Смолич).

In both languages adverbial clauses of result usually occupy the position after the main clause.

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