ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN USE

PART I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY IN USE

THE ENGLISH VERB

THE PRESENT SIMPLE (INDEFINITE) AND THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE-FORMS

A. The Present Simple (Indefinite) Tense

FORMATION

Table /

Contractions:

don't = do not doesn't = does not

* The rules of the verb tenses formation and usage in 1 1-1.7. refer to the Active Voice.

As is seen from the table above the Present Simple (In­definite) in affirmative sentences coincides in form with the Infinitive without the particle to except the 3rd person singular when the ending s (-es) is added to the verb.

I work - he works; you play - she plays;

we finish - it finishes; I cry - she cries The ending -s/-es has three variants of pronunciation: [s],

[z], [iz]. (See the table below).

Table 2

In interrogative and negative sentences the Present Simple tense takes the auxiliary do or does (for the 3rd person singular) with the exception of the verb to be which does not need an auxiliary.

When does he usually do his homework?

What do you do for a living?

I don't feel like going out tonight.

Why are you so angry with him?

He is not in. He is out.

USAGE

The Present Simple (Indefinite) tense denotes:

1. Habitual facts or repeated actions, which are normally indicated by adverbials of frequency such as often, always, usually, seldom, rarely, sometimes, never, generally, as a rule, every day (month), every other day (week, month, etc.,), once a week, etc.

He often works till midnight.

My brother plays tennis every other day.

Are you never late for classes?

Do you generally speak English in class?

2. Universal truths (laws of nature) and permanent cha­racteristics, situations or states.

The sun sets in the west. She teaches English at school. Do you like rainy weather? His parents live in London.

3. Present actions and states, going on at the moment of speech with the so-called stative* verbs which include

a) verbs of sense perception: see, hear, notice, taste, smell, etc.

It smells like a hospital in here.

The meat tastes spicy.

I don't see anyone in the room. Where are they all?

b) verbs of mental activity: understand, think, believe, remember, know, forget, mean, suppose, recognize, etc.

Do you recognize me? What does he mean?

Who do you think will win the game? Do you know what he is speaking about?

c) verbs of feeling and emotions: like, dislike, hate, love, wish, want, prefer, care, etc.

I prefer dogs to cats.

Which of these dresses do you like best?

About the possibility of using the Present Continuous with some of the stative verbs see Part B of this Unit.

Do you want anything to drink? - I want a glass

of juice, please.

Jill really hates house work.

d) verbs of possession: have, belong, own, possess, etc. Who does this car belong to? They have a big new house.

4. Future actions

a) in subordinate clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, after, before, as soon as, until, if, in case, etc.

When the water boils I'll turn off the gas. I'll join you as soon as I get a note from you. You won't get slim if you eat too many sweets. I'll tell you a secret if you promise to keep it. b) for scheduled facts and events such as flights, train arrivals, departures, itineraries which are worked out officially and are certain to take place.

The flight leaves at 2 p.m. (according to the time­table)

You arrive at Basel at 6.30 a.m. local time, (accor­ding to the itinerary)

B. The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense

FORMATION

The Present Continuous tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary be in the appropriate form and the Present Par­ticiple of the main verb.

Table 3

Contractions:

'm = am 're = are

's = is

aren't = are not isn't = is not

When -ing is added to a verb there may be some changes in spelling:

a) final e is omitted: have - having; make - making;

b) ie is replaced by y: lie - lying; die - dying;

c) the consonant following a short vowel is doubled: put -putting; get - getting.

USAGE

The Present Continuous tense denotes:

1. An action happening now. This may mean 'at the actual

She always worries about her children. (Present Simple with 'always' is used to denote a regular habitual action.)

She is always worrying about trifles. (Present Continuous with 'always' is used to express the speaker's irritation about smb's habit which he/she considers negative.)

Note that some of the stative verbs can be used in the Present Continuous form when the verb expresses an activity (an event), not a state.

PRACTICE

THE PAST SIMPLE (INDEFINITE)

AND THE PAST CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSE-FORMS

A. The Past Simple (Indefinite) Tense

FORMATION

The Past Simple is formed by adding -ed to the stem for regular verbs and by changing the root vowel or in some other ways for irregular verbs which need to be memorized. The form of the Past Simple is the same for all persons.

Table 4

Contractions:

didn't = did not

When -ed is added there are sometimes changes in spelling, e.g. stop - stopped, study - studied. The ending -ed has variants of pronunciation depending on the type of a preceding sound:

USAGE

The Past Simple tense denotes:

1. A single action or a state. The reference of the action to the past is typically indicated by time adverbials such as ago, last year (week, month), yesterday, the other day, in 1997, last (time), for five years, for a week, etc.

Ann spent a lot of money on books yesterday. It didn't rain last night.

When did you go to the cinema last?

She started learning the piano at the age of five.

I baked the cake for 30 minutes.

Note that when an adverbial denoting a period of time (for five years, for a fen- minutes, etc) is used with the Past Simple emphasis is placed on the reference of the fact to the past, not on the duration of the activity.

They lived in Brest for five years before the war.

2. A succession of single past actions.

/ entered the office, looked around and came up to

the secretary.

FORMATION

The Past Continuous tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary was/were and the Present Participle of the main

verb.

Table 5

Contractions:

wasn't = was not weren't = were not

USAGE

The Past Continuous (Progressive) tense denotes:

1. An action in progress at a definite moment * or at a definite period of time in the past indicated normally by adverbial modifiers such as at 5 p.m., at that time yesterday, from 2 to 3, between three and four, all the morning, the whole day, etc.

At one o'clock she was having lunch.

What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.?

It was raining the whole morning.

The moment in the past can also be expressed by the context or by an adverbial clause of time.

I looked out of the window. The sun was shining

and the birds were singing.

When I came in he was lying in bed.

Obviously, the action of the subordinate clause of time in such cases is simultaneous with that of the principal clause. However, the two actions are not always identical in cha­racter. One can be an action in progress (i.e. a long action) while the other may be an event (i.e. a short action) which 'interrupts' the activity going on at the given past moment.

We were going down in the lift when it suddenly stopped.

* Similar to the meaning of 'now' in the Present Continuous tense, the definite moment in the past may actually mean both at and around a particular moment in the past. The meaning of the Past Continuous in the latter case is that of a temporary past activity contrasted to a permanent past activity expressed by the Past Simple Tense.

// happened while I was living in Bristol. They lived in London all their life.

There can be situations with two parallel past actions in progress, which are both expressed by the Past Continuous or by the Past Simple tenses, or there may be a combination of the Past Continuous and the Past Simple. The two simulta­neous actions in progress are normally linked by 'while'.

Jane was cooking while I was laying the table. While we were packing (packed) the suitcases, Bill was talking (talked) to the travel agent.

Note that when the two actions are not simultaneous, i.e.

when one action happened after the other, the Past Simple

is used for both the verbs.

When Brenda arrived I was telephoning Jim. (She arrived during my telephone call.) Wlien Brenda arrived I telephoned Jim. (I telepho­ned after her arrival.)

2. A past action of unusual frequency to convey a feeling of annoyance or irritation with adverbials of frequency like always, constantly (compare with a similar use of the Present Continuous).

When he studied at school he was always making trouble.

3. Present time actions in progress in reported speech after the reporting verbs like say, tell, ask, wonder, etc in the Past Simple (according to the rules of Sequence of Tenses).

PRACTICE

Choose the suitable adverb.

1. Everyone was talking but stopped (then/the moment) Mr Smith entered the room.

2. I lived in Glasgow (until/by the time) I was fourteen.

3. (While/Once) I was chewing a piece of meat, my tooth fell out.

4. James always let me know (at the time/whenever) he was going to be late.

5. Now, Mr Star, what were you doing (between/by) ten and ten thirty last night?

6. It wasn't (until/up to) last year that they could afford to buy a car.

7. I was sitting at my report (by 5p.m./at 5p.m.).

8. (When/While) I got to the cinema Jack was waiting for me.

9. He was drinking quite a lot (these days/those days). 10. (When/During) I was shopping I met Max, my sister's

boy-friend.

FORMATION

The Present Perfect tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary have/has and the Past Participle of the main verb.

Table 6

Contractions:

've = have

's = has

haven't = have not hasn't = has not

USAGE

The Present Perfect tense denotes:

1. Completed past actions connected in their result with the present either because of the actual evidence of the result or its importance for the present. The recent comp­letion of an action is often expressed by the adverbials 'recently, lately, already' 'in affirmative sentences and the adverbial 'yet 'in questions and negatives.

I've recently (lately) spoken to him on the phone. I'm afraid I've forgotten my key. Do you want some more coffee? - No, thanks, I've already had enough.

Has your younger brother left school yet? Slie hasn 't found the dog yet.

To show that something has happened very recently the adverbial just is used.

Mary has just gone out.

Just now, however, which means 'a moment ago' is used with the Past Simple.

Mary went out just now.

There can be no adverbial in the sentence when the present evidence of the result of a completed past action is clear from the context.

My mother is angry because I've lost my watch.

The importance of a completed past action for the present stands out clearly in complex sentences with superlative constructions, ordinal numerals or 'the only'in the principal clause.

It's the best salad I have eaten in this restaurant.

It's the second time I have seen this film.

This is the only place he's been to.

This is the first time I've felt really relaxed.

The Present Perfect for completed past actions is often used with today, this morning, this week, this year, etc. when these periods are not over.

/ have written three letters this morning, (when it is still 'this morning')

It must be remembered that the Present Perfect is not used with 'definite past time' adverbials like yesterday, last time, a year ago, the other day, etc. These adverbials are used with the Past Simple which emphasizes the time of the event. Compare, e.g.:

Deborah has ironed your shirt, (emphasis on the

result)

Deborah ironed your shirt yesterday morning.

(emphasis on the time of the action)

2. Incomplete actions that started in the past, lasted over a period of time and are still taking place in the pre­sent. The Present Perfect in this meaning is typical of verbs not used in the continuous aspect but is not limited to them. The starting point of the action is expressed by an adverbial with 'since' while an adverbial with 'for' is used to denote a period of time. (Compare the use of similar adverbials with 'for' with the Past Simple). Such adverbs as ever, never, lately, recently, always, often, all my life, so far, etc. are also often used with the Present Perfect to denote incomplete past actions.

They have been married for 20 years.

I've lived here since 1992.

Have you ever ridden a helicopter?

I have never tasted papaya.

She 's been here several times before.

PRACTICE

FORMATION

The Present Perfect Continuous tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary have/has been and the Present Participle of the main verb.

Table 7

USAGE

The Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) tense is used to denote a) an action which started in the past and has been in progress up to the present and including the present or b) a past action of certain duration completed by the present moment and having visible results or effects in the present.

Depending on whether the activity a) is still continuing at the moment of speech or b) has been completed by this time

the inclusive and exclusive meanings of the given tense-form are distinguished.

He's been repairing his car for an hour already. (he is still doing it)

It has been raining since morning, (and it is still raining now)

Your jacket is torn again! You ve been fighting. (but not fighting at the moment of speech)

To denote the period of time or the starting point of the action adverbials with 'for'and 'since'are normally used with these tense-forms.

The Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive) tense is similar ю the Present Perfect Simple in showing connection between the past and present. But the Present Perfect Continuous tense is used for more temporary actions and situations and emphasizes the duration of the activity. The Present Perfect Simple is used for more permanent situations and expresses an idea of the completion of an action emphasizing the result of the action for the present.

His parents have lived in London all their lives. I've been living in Sally's flat for the last month.

Note the difference between the Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect tenses from the point of view of Russian-English and English-Russian translation.

PRACTICE

1. Choose the appropriate tense-form.

1. A. - What have you done/have you been doing with my knife? Where is it?

B. - I've put it back in your drawer.

A. - (taking it out) What have you done/have you been doing with it? The blade's all twisted! Have you been using/have you used it to open tins?

2. A. - Do you see those people on that little sandy island? They have been waving/have waved their handker­chiefs for the last half-hour. I wonder why.

B. - They need help. The tide is coming in and very soon that island will be under water. Have you sat/have you been sitting calmly without doing anything to help them?

A. - I have never been/have never been being here before I haven't been hearing/haven't heard about the tides

here. What's up? What are you looking for/have you been looking for? Have you lost/have you been losing

something?

3. A. - Are you still painting/have you been still painting your country house?

B. - Yes. I'm painting/I've been painting it for several days already. I think it'll look beautiful when it's finished.

A. The Past Perfect Tense

FORMATION

The Past Perfect Tense is formed with the auxiliary had and the Past Participle of the main verb.

USAGE

The Past Perfect tense denotes a past event (action or state) that happened before another past event. In other words, the Past Perfect Tense is used to denote an action in the distant past which is contrasted to another action which is less far away in the past. This priority of one past action can be indicated by an adverbial phrase with the preposition 'by' or by a clause with the conjunctions before, no sooner... than, hardly... when, scarcely... when. It may also become clear from the logical relations between the clauses or sen­tences in a context.

The letter had arrived by the end of the week.

By March the snow hadn’t melted yet.

Had they left before the trouble started?

They hadn't yet started eating by the time I arrived at the party.

Hardly had we put up a tent when it started to rain.

(or We had hardly put up a tent when it started to rain.)

No sooner had he arrived than he was told to start back again.

I could see from his face that he had received bad news.

I hadn't eaten all day so I was very hungry when I got home.

I couldn't get into the car. The boys had hidden the car keys.

Note that when there is a simple succession of past actions (without their being contrasted in time) the Past Simple tense is used for each event.

I got to the stadium at 7.15 and the game started at 7.30.

She thanked him for his hospitality. They shook hands and he wished her a pleasant journey.

The Past Perfect Tense is commonly used in Reported (Indirect) Speech after the reporting verbs such as say, tell, ask, explain, wonder, etc. in the Past Simple.

She wondered who had left the door open. She said she had bought a lovely pair of shoes.

When Direct Speech is transformed into Reported Speech the adverbials of 'absolute past' are replaced by 'relative' indications of time: 'yesterday' is replaced by 'the day before', or 'the previous day', 'ago' by 'before', 'last night' by 'the previous night'.

I asked if the Browns had left the day before. We knew David had left school two years before.

Notice that the Past Perfect in Reported Speech is the result of changing two tense-forms in Direct Speech: the Past Simple and the Present Perfect.

FORMATION

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is formed with the auxiliary had been and the Present Participle of the main verb.

Table 9

Contractions

'd = had; hadn't = had not

USAGE

The Past Perfect Continuous is used to denote a) actions or situations continuing over a period up to a specific time in the past (inclusive meaning), b) past actions of certain duration which had visible results in the past (exclusive meaning).

PRACTICE

A. The Future Simple Tense

FORMATION

The Future Simple (Indefinite) tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary shall/will and the Infinitive of the main verb without to.

Table 10

Contractions

'11 = will (shall) shan't = shall not won't = will not

In modern English will is preferable with all persons. Any difference between shall and will disappears in everyday speech, where the contractions I'll and we'll are normally used.

USAGE

The Future Simple (Indefinite) denotes:

1. A predicted future action, a happening which is ine­vitable and out of anybody's control.

Next year I'll be 18.

Spring will come soon.

In 100 years' time there will be a lot more people

than there are now.

Reference to the future is typically indicated by adverbials of time such as tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, in a week (month, year), next year, in 2008, etc. Sometimes reference to the future is clear from the situation.

Spring has come, so the snow will start melting, the birds will come back home.

2. An action which the speaker regards as possible, pro­bable or likely to happen in future (near or remote).

I'm sure he'll get better.

I don't think I'll go out tonight, I'm too tired.

No doubt you'll enjoy the performance.

I don't think Ann will pass her exams easily. She was idling away her time during the term.

Do you think they'll win the match?

I'll probably be a bit late this evening. 3. An action decided on spontaneously, out of circumstan­ces (i.e. an action which is not part of a plan).

Don't lift the suitcase. I'll help you.

It looks like rain. I'll take my umbrella then.

It's Kate's birthday tomorrow. - Is it? O.K. I'll send her a card this afternoon.

What would you like to drink? - I'll have a coke, please.

Close in meaning to this case is the use of the Future Simple in complex sentences with clauses of time and real condition. It must be remembered that the Future Simple is found only in the principal clause, whereas the subordinate clause takes the Present Simple or the Present Perfect (to express a completed action).

I'll phone you as soon as I arrive.

When you return home you'll notice a lot of changes.

It's pouring down. We'll get wet through if we go out.

When you see Jane again, you won't recognize her.

Come on! Mum will be worried if we are late again.

I won't send the parcel until I hear from you.

As soon as Bob and Ash ton have got married they'll move to California.

I shan’t phone you until I have done my homework.

In Indirect Speech when the reporting verb in the principal clause is in the Past tense the Future Simple tense is replaced by the Future in the Past and the adverbials like tomorrow, next week, etc. are replaced by the next day, the next week, etc.

We knew that Christie would phone the next week. Brian informed us he would go to university the next year.

D. The Simple Present Tense

This tense is used instead of the Present Continuous to express a definite future arrangement in a more formal language. Like in the case with the Present Continuous, the future meaning of the Present Simple must be indicated by a special adverbial modifier or the context, e.g.

The train leaves at 6 a.m. tomorrow.

The film starts at 2 p.m.

FORMATION

The Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense is formed with shall/will be + the Present Participle.

Table 11

Contractions

'11 = will (shall) shan't = shall not won't = will not

In modern English will is preferable for all persons (see the Note for the Future Simple).

USAGE

The Future Continuous tense denotes:

1. An action which will be going on at a definite moment

F. The Future Perfect Tense

FORMATION

The Future Perfect Tense is formed by means of the Future Simple of the auxiliary verb to have and the Past Participle

of the main verb.

Table 12

USAGE

The Future Perfect Tense denotes an action viewed as comp­leted before a definite future moment indicated by an adverbial with the preposition 'by' or by another future action. It may also denote a future action covering a certain period of time up to or including the given future moment (with stative verbs, i. e. verbs not used in the Continuous aspect).

/ think she'll have finished the essay by Monday.

By the time you get back Mike will have left.

He'll have been in this business for five years by

next summer.

FORMATION

The Future Perfect Continuous (Progressive) tense is formed with the help of the Future Perfect Tense of the auxiliary verb to be and the Present Participle of the main verb.

Table 12

USAGE

The Future Perfect Continuous (Progressive) tense-form denotes an action lasting for a period of time up to or inclu­ding a certain future moment. This future moment can be indicated by an adverbial with the preposition 'by' or by another future action. As with all the perfect continuous tenses the Future Perfect Continuous is preferred to the Future Perfect when the speaker wants to emphasize the progressive character of an action.

By five o'clock I'll have been doing this crossword puzzle for two hours.

By the time he arrives in London Max will havebeen driving for nearly five hours.

PRACTICE

Present Perfect Continuous

My wife and I (live) in our present house in the country for five years. We (move) here after our second child (be) born. We (live) in town for ten years, and then (decide) that as soon as we could afford it we (move) away from the smoke and the noise of the city centre, which we finally (do) in 1985. We never (regret) it. We (be) reminded of the wisdom of our decision every morning when we (draw) the curtains to see open fields stretching before us. When the children (have I breakfast they (rush) outside to play which they (do) whatever the weather.

Perfect Continuous

Dear Ann,

I (receive) your letter about two weeks ago and (try) to find time to write you back ever since. I (be) very busy lately. For the past two weeks I (have) four tests, and I (have) another test next week. In addition, a friend (stay) with me since last Thursday. She (be) fond of sightseeing, so we (spend) a lot of time visiting some of the interesting places here. Between showing her the city and studying for my exams, I barely (have) enough time to breathe. Right now it (be) 3 a.m. and I (sit) here for five hours doing my studying. My friend's plane (leave) at 6.05, so I (decide) not to go to bed. That's why I (write) to you at such an early hour in the day. I (get) a little sleepy, but I would rather stay up. I (take) a nap after I (get) back from taking her to the airport.

How you (get) along? How your classes (go)'l Please, write soon.

Love,

Мary

8. Present Simple/Past Simple/Present Continuous/

Perfect Continuous

Yesterday I (receive) a phone call from an old friend who I (not/hear) from for months. I (ask) him what he (do) lately, and he told me that he (spend) the past three months sailing around the world on an old-fashioned sailing ship. I always

(love) everything to do with the sea, so I was very excited to hear that he (manage) to do something so thrilling. I (ask) him if we (can) get together soon and (make) him promise that he (bring) all the photos he (take). When he (come) next week, Г11 expect him to tell me exactly what the trip (he) like.

FORMATION

The Passive voice is formed with the help of the auxiliary be in the appropriate form and the Past Participle of the main verb (see Table 13).

Note 1: Future Continuous Passive (will be being + Past Participle) and Perfect Continuous Passive (have been being + Past Participle, etc.) are unusual and are not normally used. Note 2: Passive Infinitives are used with 'to' or without 'to' in the same way as Active Infinitives: e.g.

The pupils must be warned about the change in the time-table. The letter doesn 't have to be sent

tomorrow.

USAGE

The use of the verb-tenses in the passive voice is determined by the same principles as in the active voice. Yet a passive construction is not merely a transformation of the active one. It is made to show that the subject of a sentence is not the

doer of the action but the receiver of it. Hence the passive

voice has its own uses marked by the shift of focus from the doer of the action to the action itself which is typical of more formal speech.

Customers are requested to ask for a receipt. When were you told about the new rules? The floor is filthy. It must be scrubbed.

PRACTICE

Case notes of a nurse

Ward Sister Sarah Browne is responsible for the welfare of 28 patients on two wards at the London hospital where she (work) for the last 6 years. She (direct) a staff of 12 working in three shifts. There are also as many as 15 student nurses who (assign) to the ward at any one time. It (calculate), she says, that 200 people - doctors, nurses, visitors, students - (move) through her general and acute medical ward in a day. Sister Browne, who is 39, (qualify) as a nurse 20 years ago. She (work) as a clinical teacher and (do) research into psychotherapy for former smokers. Her working week easily (exceed) the 37 hours she is supposed to work. 08.45 The morning report (just/end) and Sister Browne (listen) as a qualified nurse (explain) the insulin injection she is about to give to a diabetic patient. 09.38 Sister Browne (chat) by the bedside of an 85-year-old woman who (wait) for a place in a home for two and a half years.

i1 33 Sister Browne (just/interrupt) by a telephone call. Whatever she (do), she finds herself being summoned to deal with queries and occasional emergencies. Whenever she (enter) a room, she (switch) on a light by the door to show staff and patients that she (arrive). All the nurses (wear) flat white shoes which are essential to lessen the strain of being on their feet virtually all day. The floors are hard but Sister Browne says she (get used) to them and hardly (notice) her aching feet any more.

12.18 Sister Browne (have) a kind word with an elderly patient who (recently/admit) and is very concerned about her dog and four cats. Pets are a particular prob­lem for elderly patients who (live) alone for some time.

15.01 Sister Browne (joke) with a patient who is about to (take) to another part of the hospital for an X-ray. The ward (specialise) in chest diseases and Sister Browne (ban) smoking.

15.55 Now that her shift nearly (finish) Sister Browne (snatch) a moment's rest before driving home. She will be up again at six tomorrow to do the same shift.

NODAL VERBS

2.1. CAN, COULD, BE ABLE

MUST, HAVE TO, TO BE TO

MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICE

THE ARTICLE IN ENGLISH

BASIC RULES

The article is a part of speech which is used before the noun and has the function of a noun determiner. A similar function is performed by possessive, demonstrative and indefinite pronouns. However, only one determiner can be used in English, i.e. either an article or a pronoun precedes the noun. As far as the use of article is concerned there are three possibilities in English: the indefinite article (a/an), the definite article (the) and the absence of article, or the so-called гего article.

My brother works in a large garage in Brighton.

Mary has always wanted to be a scientist.

Cars and buses are a major source of pollution in

Cities.

Did you enjoy the party you went to on Saturday?

You ought not to waste money on smoking.

The choice of the article depends, first of all, on the type and the form of the noun: countable/uncountable, singular/ plural (see the table below).

Table 14*

* The table is taken from: Michael Swan. «Practical English Usage», Moscow. 1984. p. 66.

A. The Indefinite Article

The original meaning of a/an - one - explains why it is used only with countable nouns in the singular.

Here's a hundred pounds.

Don’t me the plate as an ashtray.

The main function of the indefinite article is generally defined as classifying, i.e. referring a person, an animal, an object or a thing to a class of similar objects, things, etc.

This is a journal and that is a magazine.

A lawyer is a person who helps people with legal problems.

The classifying function is closely connected with the meaning of indefiniteness (any representative of a class, not a particular one) and novelty (this person, object, etc., is introduced in the context for the first time).

Last Sunday we found a small puppy in the park and brought it home.

B. The Definite Article

The article 'the' derives from the Old English demonstrative pronoun 'se' (that), which accounts for deflniteness as its basic meaning: both the speaker and the hearer know what is being talked about.

The definiteness of the thing, object, etc. arises from a) an earlier mention of the noun in the context.

Sue and Frank have got two children: a girl and a boy. The girl is a student and the boy is still at school.

A man came up to a policeman and asked him a question. The policeman didn 't understand the question and so he asked the man to repeat it.

I've recently bought new jeans. The jeans cost me a pretty penny.

I found cheese and yogurt in the fridge. The cheese was absolutely stale.

b) the presence of a specifying (particularizing) modifier

Wow, the sand is really hot! (an uncountable nounof material)

The film wasn 't good but we liked the music, (an uncountable abstract noun)

Come and look at the horses! (a countable noun, plural)

The definite article can also precede a proper noun. It is used, in particular, with nouns denoting the name of the whole family (the Browns) or geographical names such as water­ways (the Indian Ocean, the Volga, the Naroch, but Lake Naroch), mountain ranges (the Alps, the Urals, but Everest), and the name of cardinal points (the South, the North}. It must be remembered, however, that no article is used with the names of the continents (Asia, Europe), countries (Russia. Belarus, France), mountain peaks and towns.* There are a great number of set expressions and phrases in English in which the use of the indefinite, definite or zero article does not depend on the context. Memorizing some of them will help the learner to cope with the difficulties of using the article. Below is a list of such phrases.

With the indefinite article

as a result as a rule as a matter of fact at a glance at a gulp at a distance in a hurry in a loud/low voice in a sense

in a whisper in a mess in a good humour in a way in a while in a rush it is a shame it is a pity it is a pleasure once a year/week to have a bath to have a shower to have a wash to have a meal to have a cold to have a row to a certain degree to have a swim to have a smoke to have a rest to have a good time to have a headache (a toothache, etc.) to go for a walk to tell a lie to be at a loss to do smb a favour to make a mistake to give a hand to a certain extent

With the definite article

all the same at the latest at the time at the moment by the way for the time being in the afternoon/ evening/morning in the singular in the plural in (the) winter/ summer/spring in the day-time in the past/present in the centre in the middle in the distance in the doorway in the original in the shade on the whole on the spot on the one hand on the other hand on the safe side out of the question the other day the day after tomorrow the wrong side the right route most of the time the only place (but an only child) the same opinion

the poor/the rich the sick the wounded the unemployed the needy the handicapped to tell the truth to tell the time to keep the house to make the bed under the influence (of) to lay the table to make the most (best) of smth

to do the washing up

With the zero article

arm in arm at dawn at dusk at daybreak at twilight at night at midnight at sunrise (sunset) at noon at first sight

at night at home at present at dinner beyond recognition by phone/by radio by mistake by chance by name

by accident from beginning to end from east to west at work from side to side for sale hand in hand in charge

in future in service in demand in spite of in (on) time in search (of) in secret in sight in (for) fun in fact

in debt in detail in person it's time on board the ship on fire on sale on leave on hand/at hand/off hand on account (of) on condition (that) out of control out of date out of order out of sight out of place from head to foot

step by step to be/to stay in bed to get out of bed/town to be at home/school/college to be in hospital to go to hospital/school/ college/university/prison/church to go home/down-town to leave school/home to travel/go/come/get by bus/car to stay/invite for lunch/tea/dinner to have breakfast/lunch/tea to do research

to be in trouble to get into trouble to lose control to be in despair to pay attention (to) to take care (of) to make fun (of) to have great fun to shake hands (with) to keep time to ask for permission to study mathematics, physics, history, but the history of Art to speak English, but the English language to play football, tennis, etc., but to play the piano/violin, etc. a kind/sort of place (book, house, etc.)

Miscellaneous Practice

j What is... capital of India? - Delhi. 2 What do you think of Margaret? - She is... extremely nice person.

3. I had... cup of... coffee and some toast for breakfast this morning.... coffee was delicious.

4. He is trying to find... job, but there isn't much work available at... present.

5. Would you like to travel round... world?

6. It was... excellent holiday. We had... great fun.

7. I'd like... hamburger, please.

8. Could you switch off... TV? Nobody is watching it.

9. Most of... land in this region belongs to... small farmers.

10. I've got... book about... life of John Kennedy.

11.... architect designs... buildings.

12. I enjoy talking to... old people.

13. I find... History... interesting subject.

14. They studied... history of the Spanish Civil War at... school.

15.... instruction was so complex that I couldn't under­stand it.

16. You must contact... manager and tell him about... telegram. It is... urgent telegram.

17. It's... film about... homeless people.

18. Do you get on with... neighbours who live next door?

19. Pauline asked me... question to which I had no reply.

20. Noticing... door was open, I decided to go in. It turned out to be... museum.

21. Slamming... door, Carol drove off in... car her father had given her as... present.

22.... blind people often have... excellent sense of... smell.

23. When Sally was on... holiday in... Alps, she broke her leg and had to stay in... hospital for two weeks.

24.... sweets were wrapped in... silver paper.

25. Could you turn down... music? It's too loud.

26. She looked at me with... strange smile.

27. We never eat... white bread at home.

28. No news is... good news.

29.... air is very fresh today.

30.... apple... day is good for you.

31. I'm... vegetarian. I don't eat... meat or... fish.

32. Do you like... English beer?

33.... acting was poor, but we enjoyed... music.

34. There's nothing like... whipped cream for me.

35.... vase is... kind of pot for holding flowers.

36. Don't buy... artificial silk, we must have... real silk.

37. Do you have... sleeping bag by any chance?

38. Being... man of... fixed views he refused to listen to our arguments.

39. Have you heard... news?

40. When I came in he was lying on... bed.

41.... nail went right through... wall.

42. What... strange ideas you have!

43. As far as... mathematics is concerned it was... complete failure.

44. Every Sunday he went to... church.

45. Either... Germany or... Holland will win... World Cup.

46. I have never seen such... huge crowd of... people.

47. Many people eat in... Chinese restaurants in... London.

48 Several of... passengers were hurt and one of them was taken to...hospital.

49 Measles, which is... children's disease is dangerous for adults.

50. Mr Heyman was considered... excellent music teacher.

51. Did you have... good time at your dacha?

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