The arrangement of notes and syllables

1. On hearing these words of Sanandana, sage Narada spoke to his brother Sanandana, as though not fully satisfied.

2. Venerable Sir! Everything of whatever has been asked by me, has been narrated by your worship. But despite hearing the stories of Hari repeatedly, my mind docs not feel satisfied.

3. It is heard that Shuka, the son of Vyasa, was a great knower of Dharma. He became disgusted (with the world) both internally and externally. He attained very great Siddhi (spiritual accomplishment).

4. О Brahmana, without the service rendered to the great ones, no man can gain perfect knowledge. How did, then, the infant son of Vyasa attain perfect knowledge?

5. I am eagerly listening. Kindly recount to me the secret of his birth as well as his activities. О highly blessed one, you are the knower of the scripture on salvation.

6. О Brahmana, listen. I shall narrate to you the origin of Shuka succinctly. О sage, on hearing it, a man becomes the knower of reality of the Brahman.

7. It is not through the ageing years or greying hairs, riches or kinsmen that the sages performed their Dharma (and gained esteem). A person who is Апйсйпа (so well-versed in the Vedas and their Angas that he can both repeat them and teach them) is a great man unto us.

8. О bestower of honour, О Brahmana, how does a person become an Апйсйпа. Please narrate tome that achievement. I am eager to hear of it.

9. О Narada, listen. I shall recount to you the characteristics of an Апйсйпа. On knowing them, a man becomes well conversant with the Vedas along with their Angas (ancillary subjects.).

10. shiksha (the science dealing with laws of euphony, phonetics),Kalpa (treatise on rituals and ceremonials), Vyakarana (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology and Semantics), Jyotifa (Astronomy) and Chandas (Prosody) — the learned men know that these are the six ancillaries of the Veda.

11. The Rgvcda> the Tajutveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda — these arc the four Vedas mentioned while ascertaining Dharma.

12. The excellent Brahmana who learns the Vedas along- with the Angas, from his preceptor becomes an Апйсйпа and not otherwise, even (by studying independently) through crores of books.

13. Mention the characteristics of ancillaries as well as those of the Vedas in details. Among us, О bestower of honour, you are the greatest scholar of these (Vedas) along- with their angas.

14. О Brahmana, this unparalleled burden of problems has been placed on me by you. I shall, however, succinctly narrate the quintessence of these definitely.

15. Svara (Note or Accent) is glorified as the most important item in the shiksha by sages and Brdhmanas well-versed in the Vedas. I shall describe that to you. Listen.

16. In the authentic treatise of the Science of Svaras (notes), it is enjoined that the Svarantaras (the type of the interval of theattro; — notes) viz. Arcika, Gdthika and Samika1 are to be employed for specific purposes.

17. The Svara with one interval is used in figveda mantras, the Svara with two intervals is used in the Gathas (religious Verses) and the Svara with three intervals is used in the Sdman hymns. One should know that this much is the interval in regard to the notes in these).

18. Those who make use of the aftgas of the Rk, Sdman, and Tajus in the Tajnas without the thorough knowledge of Shiksha will be committing the blunder of Visvara (wrong intonation.).

19. A mantra uttered with a defective accent or deficient in Svara and badly pronounced Varna (syllable) does not convey the proper meaning. It is like a Vdgvajra (thunderbolt in the form of words). It injures the house-holder (on whose behalf the Yajna is performed) just as the compound word Indraiatru (the Bahuvrlhi compound was used instead of Genitive Tatpurufa) when there was the wrong utterance of Svara.2

20. In the treatises (of Sikfa) the bases of pronunciation is the chest, throat and head. These are called Savanas or Samans with half the intervals.

21. Uras (chest) has seven Vivdras (expansions) so also the Kan (ka (throat) and the Sir as (the head). You are incapable of clearly understanding. Such is the rule regarding the Exposition.

22. The first Svara (viz. Arcika) is to be used in chanting the Katha (Kdfhaka) Samhitd, the Sarhhita called Taittira (i.e. the Tailtiriya Samhitd of the Black Yajurvcda), the Rgveda and Sdma-Veda Samhitds.

23. The ftgveda continues (i.e. is chanted) in the second (i.e. Gdthika) and the third (viz. Sdmika) Svaras as well. From the material point of view, the Svara is (classified as) Ucca (high pitched) Madhyama, (the middle one) and Sahghdta (combined or a vowel with its consonant).

third, first and KruSfa (loud, sixth) Svaras, the chanters of the Taittiriya Sarhhitd use the four Svaras beginning from the second and ending with the fifth.

25. О great sage, the Sama-singers use (in chanting) the first, second, third, fourth, the fifth Mandra and the sixth (Krusfa)

26. The second and first of these svaras arc associated with Tdn<jlya-Brdhmana and its school Bhallavi. These are the Svaras of the chanters of Satapatha Brdhmana and the Vajasaniya — the Samhitd of the white Tajurveda.

27. These(iSW<w)are especially laid down(for the above), although (all) Svaras are common to all the Vedas.

28. % I shall now explain to you the functions of the Svaras in the Sama-Veda. The ancillary (viz. Sdma-veda Sikfa) though brief is profound in meaning.

29. The characteristics of Tana (the protracted tone or a key-tone in music), Rdga] (a musical mode or order of sounds), Svaras, Grdmas (Gamuts or scale in music) and Murchands (or mllrchdb melody) which are sacred, sanctifying and meritori- ous, have been already21 expounded to you.

30a. The education of the twice-born castes is characterised by the (study of) the Rgveda, Tajurveda and Samaveda.

30b-31a. Svaras are seven, grdmas are three and Mdrchanas are twentyone. Tanas are forty nine — all these constitute the svara-mantjala.

31b-32a. Sadja (Sa), Rsabha (Re), Gandhara (Ga), Madhyama (Ma), Panchama (Pa), Dhaivata (Dha) and Nisada (JVY) is the seventh Svaras sh

ф NArtfabhAllavinau. Out of this Ndpdi is an obvious misprint for ТАрф — as in the Devanagari — script ta and na arc often mistaken for each other, BhAUavi is the name of the school of that (Tdsh4a) Brdhma^ay vide MW p. 754.

X After completing the general discussion about the use of svaras (Svara-saficdra) in Vedas, the NP. deals with the Svara-SaAcara in the

sh According to Bharata (Ndtya-Sdtlra) Bhairava, Kauiika, Htndola, Dfpaka, shri and Megha arc the primary Rfigas. Other writers give different names. Each Rdga has “female consort” or a Ra^ini and their union gives rise to several musical modes.

a. This is a misplaced quotation, for the description of this is not yet given. Many verses from this chapter are quotations from a common source (Wradiya Sikfa) of the NP. and Narada’s Sahgita Makaranda.

h. It is hazardous for a translator to combine such lines as 30b a 31a as constituting one verse in the absence of MS evidence but such a combination gives the complete sense syntactically.

32b. Gramas (scales is Music) are said to be three, viz. Satfja, Madhyama and Gandhdra.

33. Sadja is born of the earth (Bhu-loka), Madhyama from Rhuvar-loka (the ether, the atmosphere just above the earth) and Gandhara from the heaven (or the firmament) — These are the three abodes of Grdmas.

34a. It is remembered (by ancients) that Grdmas and Rdgas are due to the particular (combinations of) Svaras.

34b-35a. In the case of Saina-singers, twenty Tdnas (protracted tones) are in the Madhyama-grama, fourteen are in the Sadja-grama and fifteen are in the Gandhdra (Grama) (Thus 20 4-14+15 = 49 are distributed in three Grdmas).

35b-36a. The seven Murcchanas ‘Modes’ or regulated rise and fall) of the Devas are Nadi, ViSdla, Sumukhi, Citra, Citravati, Mukhd and Hold.

36b-37a. The seven Murcchanas of the Pitrs are Apydyini, Vifvabhrla, Candrd, Hemd, Kapardini, Maitri and Bdrhati.

37b-39. The seven Murchands pertaining to sages (Rfis) should be known as follows: Uttara-Mandra in the Svara called Sadja> Abhiruhatd in Rfabha, ASvakrdntd in Gandhdra is remembered as the third MQrcchand, Sauvira verily in Madhyama (the Svara Ma,), Hrsh\ka in the Svara called Pahcama, the Mdrchand called Uttard should be known in Dhaivata and Rajani in the Svara Nifdda-

40. The Gandharvas depend upon the seven Murcchanas of Devas. Undoubtedly the Yaksas depend upon the seven Murcchanas of Pitrs.

41-43a. The seven Murcchanas of sages are remembered as Lankika (worldly, popular) The shadja note pleases Devas, the fcabha note pleases sages, the Gandhara note pleases Pitrs, the Madhyama note pleases Gandharvas, the Paficama note pleases Devas, sages, and Pitrs> the Nishdda note pleases Yaksas and the Dhaivata pleases the whole multitude of living.

43b. The good qualities of music are ten viz., the Gunas (good qualities) such as: Rakta> Puma, Alarhkrta, Prasanna9 Vyaktay Vikrush(ay Slakshnay Samay Sukumara and Madhura.

[Rakta (lovely, charming): the harmonious mingling of the notes of the flute and the lute and (the voice of the singer) is called Rakta.

Рйгпа (complete): So called as it complements (Svara and Sruti (a division of the octavo) as well as the ‘filling in’ of the metre and the syllable.

regions of the heart, the head (i.e. the upper part of the palate) and the throat, i. e. lowering down or raising up the Svara from the throat region.

Prasanna (Easily intelligible): That which is free from inhibitions, choking and hesitation (confident, uninterrupted).

TheVyakta (clear): That which correctly renders the following grammatical subtleties, viz., thePada(the word), the meaning, the base, the alteration, the augment, the Kjt and Taddhita suffixes, the compound, the root, the Nipdla (the exceptional and the irregular forms and particles), the preposition, the vowels, the gender, the gloss, the Vdrtlika (an explanatory rule), the meanings of the cases and the numbers.

The Slakfna (soft, bland): Accomplishment and presentation (of song) with rapid and quick accentuations (like ucca, nica, plutaand their combination), dalliance, beatingof time, etc.

The Sama (the equanimous): The simultaneous applying together of Svaras in the proper place (in the rise and fall of Suaras.)

The SuKumara (the gentle, tender) that which is accompanied by soft words, letters, notes and the cooling5 sound is called SuKumara.

The Madhura (sweet) that which is rich in the qualities of pleasing and jingling words and syllables occurring naturally is called Madhura.]

It is a supplementary rule which explains the meaning of that which if «aid, of that which is left unsaid and of that which has been imperfectly said t.g. Katyayana’s Vdrttika on Pacini.

44-45. There are fourteen defects6 in music (song), viz., Satlkita (hesitant) Bhlfana (terrible), Bhlta (frightened), Udghuffa (pronounced loudly), Anundsika (nasally produced) Kdkasvara (shrill tone as that of a crow), MUrdhagata (undue cerebralization) (or Ordhvagata — that has gone too high up), Sthanavivarjita Non-observance of the places of articulation), Vtsvara (Discordant), Virasa (unpleasant or disagreeable), Vifliffa, (disjoined), Vi^amdhata (odd and non-sensical), Vydkula (Agitated or bewildered) and Tdlahina (out of tunc).

46. The preceptors wish for the quality of Sama; the scholars wish for the quality of Padaccheda (i. e. Vydpta men- tioned above); women wish for the Madhura (sweet) quality and the other people wish for Vikrujfa (a loud song) with clear pronunciation of words or letters.

47-48. The Satfja note has the lustre of the petals of the lotus; the faabha note, the reddish yellow colour like that of the parrot; Gdndhdra note is gold-coloured; the Madhyama note is white like the Kunda flower, the Pahcama note is of black colour; they know that Dhaivata is yellow in colour; and the Nifdda has all the colours — these are the colours of the Svaras.

49-50. The Pahcama, the Madhyama and the sha<fja — these notes are remembered as Brdhmanas. Both the foabha and the Dhaivata notes are Kfatriyas. The notes Gdndhdra and Ntidda are partially Vaishyas and partially Shudras undoubtedly because they are fallen.

51. That scale of notes should be known as sha4ja in which the Svara ftfabha is devoid of MUrchand, Paficama is combined with Dhaivata and falls in the Madhyama Rdga along with Nifada.

52. If the Pahcama note ceases, the Gdndhdra becomes the internal note, and the fcabha is accompanied by Nifdda, know that Pahcama also like this (i.e. shddja).

53. It is called Madhyama Grdma when Dhaivata is weak, Gdndhdra rules (i.e. becomes dominant) and the Nifdda has Gatdgata (comes and goes).

54. It is called Sadja Grama when Nifdda is Ifatsprffa (i.e. slightly touched or intoned); the Gdndhdra is predominant and the Dhaivala is tremulous.

55. It should be known as the Kaifika (Iiaga) based on Pahcama (Pa) and with proper support, where a low sweet tone (Kdkali) is perceived accompanied by Antara-Svara (internal note).

56. After associating KaiHka through all the Svaras all round, if (it is commenced from) there is Nyasa (fixation) in the Madhyama note, it is called КаШка Madhyama.

57. When Kdkali is seen and there is the importance (predominance) of Panchama> Казуара calls that Kaiiika-raga as originating from Madhyamagrama.

58. The word Gandharva represents all the constituents or parts of musicology: Intelligent persons know that the letter Ga stands for vocal music, the letter Dha means playing on the musical instrument, and the letter va symbolizes the musical instruments.

59-60. [These verses give the correspondence between the notes of the flute and those of Sdma (singing):] What is the first note of the Samfl-singers is the Madhyama of the flute, what is the second (of Sdma) is remembered as Gdndhdra [of the flute] and the third is Rshabha, the fourth is called Sadja while the fifth will be Dhaivala and the sixth should be known as Nifdda while the seventh is Pahcama.

61. The peacock gives out the Sadja note and the bulls bellow the fyabha note; goats and sheep bleat the Gandhara note; and the Krauhca bird (heron or curlew) chirps the Madhyama note.

62. During the (spring) season when flowers bloom, the cuckoo coos the Panchama note. The horse neighs the Dhaivata note and the elephant trumpets the Nifada note.

63. The Sadja note originates from the throat; the (tfabha note is remembered as one produced from the head (or the upper palate), the Gdndhdra note is a nasal one and the Madhyama note originates from the cardiac region.

64. The Pahcama note originates from the cardiac region, the head and the throat. One should know that Dhaivata originates from the forehead and the Nifada is born from all the joints.

65. Sadja note is so called because it originates from six organs, viz. — the nose, the thioat, the cardiac region, the palate, the tongue and the teeth/'

66. The wind originating from the umbilical region and striking against the throat and the head sounds like the bellowing of a bull. Hence it is called fyabha.

67. The wind originating from the umbilical region and striking against the throat and the head blows (as if) wafting sweet fragrance. For that reason the note is called Gandhdra.

68. The wind originating from the umbilical region and striking against the thigh6 and the heart comes back to the umbilical region. Stationed in the middle (ofall the notes) the note is called Madhyama.

69. The wind originating from the umbilical region and striking against cardiac region, cavity of the heart, throat and the head produces the Paiicama note, since it originates from five places or organs.

70. Excepting Dhaivata and Nishdda, all the other five notes are known as originating from five organs.

71. As the notes are found abiding in five places, it is maintained (as produced?) in all places. The note sung by the Fire-god is Sadja and that sung by Brahma is JRfabha.

72. Gandhdra was sung by Soma (the moon) and the Madhyama note by Vifnu. Understand that the Pahcama note was sung by you alone (i.e. Narada).

73-75. The notes Dhaivata and Nishdda were sung by Tumburu. It is said bv the learned men that the deity of Sadja, the first note is Brahma. The deity of Jfoabha is Hutdiana (the fire-god) since its lustre is warm and brilliant. When this note of Gdndhdra is presented, cows are satisfied. Hence it is so called. Undoubtedly on hearing this note, the cows stand still. The deity of the Panchama note is Soma. It is remembered as Brahmardf (Royal Brahman).

76-78. On attaining Grdma (?) its increase and decrease is like that of the moon. Since this note over-reaches all the notes previously originating, this note is called Dhaivata. Since all the other notes sit down (i.e. are submerged) the (last) note is called Nifdda. It excels and dominates all the other notes, as its deity is Aditya (the Sun).

79. In the sphere of music there are two types of Vind (lute), viz. thcDdravi (wooden) and the Gdtravind. The Gdtravind is used for singing Sdmans. Listen to its characteristics. That in which the singers of Sdmans sing is called Gdtravind.

80-82. It is accompanied by the manifestation of the note; it is ‘coloured’ by the thumb and the other fingers. The hands should be placed controlled above the knees and kept together. (The student) should imitate the teacher and his mind should not be elsewhere. At the outset, the Pranava is uttered and the (seven) Vydhrtis (utterancesBhUh,Bhuvah> etc.).

83. The Sdvitri mantra is then chanted. Then only the regular song is begun. The sphere of Svaras must be fixed up after spreading out all the fingers.

84. One shall not touch the thumb with the (other) fingers nor the fingers with the thumb. The fingers shall not be kept separated from one another leaving much space in the middle. Nor should he touch it at its root.

85-86. He shall touch it always with the tip of the thumb at the middle joint. In order to differentiate the Mdtrds, two Mdtrds and the extended (span of time), the knower of the division shall point out two Mdtrds by means of the fingers of the left hand, where three lines are seen, one shall specify the Siddhi (sandhi?) therein.

87. (Where the lines are seen) shall be known as the Paruan (joint) and the remaining portion is called Antara. In the Sdmans one shall make the interval as much as that between the joints. In the Rks (Mantras of RV.Jone shall make the interval as much as that between two gingelly secds.(?)

88. The sensible man shall place the Svaras in the middle Parvans (joints) closely knit with one another. He shall not shake any of the limbs even slightly.

89-91. (Defective) The learned singer shall dust his hand with the earth-particles below (?) He shall remain steady, calm, and fearless and utter the syllables. He shall withdraw all his sense organs like the tortoise its limbs. His eyes shall be fixed and the mind concentrated. Just as the lightning is seen in the middle of the clouds, like a thread in a necklace of jewels, similarly should the padas be distinct just as the shearers of the hair pass the scissors over it silently. As he utters the letters (of the Mantra) he shall keep the nose held with the hand like (holding) the cow’s ear.

92. Fixing the eye to the tip of the hands, he should ponder over the meaning of the holy scripture. He should duly express the sentence by means of the hand and mouth.

93. He shall conclude the letters in the same manner as he utters it. (No different system be introduced in the same mantra). And the beating of time should be synchronous with the song, nor should he tremble (?). [There should be no omissions or additions nor should he tremble]

94-96a. He must sing the Samans with the quality of Soma (smoothly) like the flying movement of the Sycna (falcon) in the air. Just as the path of the fish moving about in the water is not observed, just as the movement of the birds in the sky is not visible, so also the Sruti (a division in the octave) of the note (is not noticeable). Just as the clarified butter present in the curds, or the (ire latent in the firewood is obtainable only with effort so also the Sruli is latent in the Svara.

96b-97a. He shall make the transit from one Soara to another, the joining of notes, not very intense (strained), or manifest. He shall make it even, gradual, its continuity being uninterrupted like the subtle and imperceptible change from the sunshine to shadow.

97b-98a. This verse gives six defects or mistakes in the ‘Protraction’ (Кarcana)1 of the tones and advises to avoid them. They are as follows: (4) The ‘non-arrival’ (andgata)stage is before the beginning of the second note, the completion of the first svara is the atikrdnta stage. The first note should not be ‘pulled or protracted’ in both the stages. He should not interrupt the first mdtrd for this. It will be Vifamdhata. He should not pass on to the next Svara, with tremulous note (as if trembling.) During the period of karsana, the note should not be extended beyond three matrds. He should give up the asthitdnta. He should stabilise in the next Svara for a period of three mdtras only (not of two mdtrds).

98b-99a. If a note swerves from its place of origin or goes far beyond its place of origin, the singers of Sdman call it Visvara (discordant) and the players on the Vind (lute) call it Virakta (unsymphonic).

99b-100a. For the purpose of practice, one shall adopt Druta Vrtti (quick movement), for the performance one shall adopt the middle movement and for the purpose of instructing the disciples one shall adopt the slow movement.

lOOb-lOla. In this way, the learned Brahmana who has mastered the treatise of Sdma-gana (singing of Samans) according to the scientific method of study, should impart injunctions in the Shiksha texts to pupils with the movement of his hands.

101b- 103a. The place (of origin) of the km a (Seventh or Fifth Svara) is in the head, of the first Svara (Saijja) in the forehead, of the second (Rfabha) Svara in between the eye-brows, of the third (Gdndhara) in both the ears, of the fourth (Madhyama) in the throat, and of the Mandra (Panchama) in the tongue. And the place of Nifada called atisvara is located at the heart (chest cavity).

103-105. Km fa Svara (seventh and fifth) should be placed upon (and thus as if‘fixed) on the tip of the thumb. The place of the first svara is the thumb. The Gdndhara is located in the index finger, the faabha in the middle finger, the Sadja in the ring-finger and the Dhaivata in the small finger. The Nifdda should be indicated below at the beginning of the small finger. As it is not completely distinct from the Mandra, it is called aparva (эгт); as it is not separately (audible and) grasped it is called asamjha (undesignated). And due to its continuity by nature? (or non-relation with gender, number etc.) it is called Avyaya (indeclinable).

106-109a. When Mandra becomes lower it is called (Parisvdra Ntiada). Deities live by (depend for their life on) the Kruft Svara and human beings by the first (shаshа), the animal world by the second (lfrabha), Gandharvas and Apsa- ras by the third, the oviparous beings (like birds) and Pitts (manes) live by the fourth (Madhyama). Pisacas (goblins), Asuras and Raksasas subsist upon the Mandra while the (lower) mobile and immobile world lives upon the low Atisvara (Nifdda). In this way all the created beings arc sustained in life by the Svaras of the Sdman.

109b-110a. A person who is not an expert in the Srutis (the divisions of the Octave) known as Dipta, Ayatd, Karuna, Mrdu and Madhyama (terms explained below) does not deserve to be called a preceptor.

HOb-llla. The Sruti of the five Svaras viz. Mandra (Pahcama) second, fourth, atisvara (sixth) and the third (Gdndhara) is called Dipta while that of the seventh Svara is karund.

11 lb-112a. The Srutis known as Mrdu, Afadhyamd and Ayatd are in the second Svara. I shall now separately deal with their distinctive characteristics.

112b. When based on the third svara, it is the Ayatd Sruti of the second svara, while when it is based on the fourth svara (viparyaya), it is the Mrdu Sruti of that Svara.

113a. When Sruti depends (entirely) on its own Svara and does not shift or change to another Svara it is the Madhyamd Sruti. It is after duly considering (and examining) these that the Sama notes are to be applied (sung).

113b-115a. The Sruti which is established in the Kruffa note ends up finally and settles on the Dvitiya. Rfabha note is called Dipta but if it does so with Prathama (Satjlja), it is regarded as Mrdu (soft Sruti). It is also called Mrdu fruti, if it finally settles on the Caturtha (Madhyama) svara, but if it does so with mandra svara it is called Dipta. The Sruti which may be settled or established on any svara a.t the time of completion of Samasinging, becomes Diptd.

115b-116a. After the completion of the note (Svara), Srutis like Ayatd should not be used. Even after completing the note but before the end of the musical concert Sruti should not be used in between two Svaras. (A Sruti is to be used in pluta- prolongated Svara) but not when a short or a long syllable is to be sung. Nor where the note called Ghuta is sung.

116b-l 17a. Where there are two gatis (viz. ‘<J, V Bhava and ‘J’,V Bhava of palatal vowel i,) and the sandhi of the final syllable of a word with sibilants f,; and s — in these five ‘places’, the note is called ghufi. (Here no Sruti is allowed).

117b-118a. In Srutis where the note (Svara) or the interval between svaras is not completed and the notes, viz. short, long and ghufa — are all devoid of Srutis, Sruti is not to be sung. In this position the svaras by themselves act as Gratis.

118b-119a» (In places other than Sdman)know that the Sruti called Diptd is in the Uddtta (highly or acutely accented Svara.) Learned persons know that the Diptd Sruti is in the Svarita (mixed tone lying between high and low) tone. Mrdu (soft) Sruti should be recognised in the Anuddtta (the grave) accent or which is not raised or accented as Uddtta) Svara. In the Gandharva method of singing (where Srutis are absent) Svaras are to be used like Srutis. The grandeur and sublimity of Srutis lies in tones (svara).

119b-120a. The kinds of svaras are five — uddtta am- ddtta, svarita, pracaya (svarita followed by svarita) and Nighdta (svarita preceding pracaya is affected. This affected svarita is Nighdta).

120b-121a. Henceforth, I shall explain to you the three svaras connected with Rks (dreika Svara). They are uddtta (the acute accent, the highly accented svara), anuddtta (the grave accent), and the third svara, svarita (mixed tone or accent lying between uddtta and anuddtta.)

121 b-122a. If the svara which is called uddtta is beyond svarita, that is called Pracaya by experts (in that science). There is no other variety of svara elsewhere.

122b-123a The accent or Svara called svarita is remembered as of two kinds (1) varna-svara and (2) atita-svara. In the same manner, a varna (a syllable) which requires a period one mdtrd (mdtrka) to pronounce becomes long (of more than one mdtrd) after uccarita (articulation).

123b-124a. That svara should be known of seven types by having a look at the desinence. What it is, where it is and how it is should be understood by its (actual) use in the word.

124b-125a. The seven notes should be applied (for hear- ing) to the right ear. This science (of Phonetics-Shiksha) has been composed by dedry as (learned preceptors) with a view to serve the interests of their sons and pupils.

125b. There is no tone (svara) louder than the Uddtta and no tone lower than the low (Anudatta).

126-127a. What is the position of svdra — the particular form of the svdra which came to be designated as Svara. The common (Sddhdrana) Svara between Uddtta and Anuddtta is known by the teachers of the Siksd Sdstra under the designation svdra.

127b-128a. In the Uddtta are found Nishdda and Gdndhdra and in the Anudatta, the svaras faabha and Dhaivata and Sa<fjay Madhyama and Paficama have svarita as their source.

128b-129a. That after which comes the sound ‘k and ‘kh’ as well as that which employs the sibilant sound called Jihvd-muliya X (viz. Xfc> X^A,) should be regarded as Mdtrd. By its very nature it is kald as well. (This should be applicable to the sounds vpadhmdniya i.e. ph.)

129b-131a. There are seven Svdras: Jdtya Kshaipray Abhinihitay Tairavyadjana, Tiro-virama, Prashliftay and the seventh Apada^vrtta. Now I shall describe the separate, distinct characteristics of these. After defining them I shall give specific illustrations of these.

13lb-132a. The syllabic (or letter-aksara) which is accompanied with - у - or-г/ - sound and becomes Svarita and has no Uddtta svara in front of it (i.e. following it) is called the Jatya svdra.

132b-133a. When an Uddtta (acutely accented) i or и has a Sandhi with an anuddtta (grave accented) 0- in the initial position of word and thus become svarita (a mixed tone between high and low tones) у or v, it should be regarded as the characteristic Kshaipra Svdra.

In Pratiiakhyas, the term Svara is used for Suarita (the circumflex accent). They record the following seven varieties of Svara: Kfaipra

Nitya, Pratihata, Abhinihata, PraSliffa, Pada~vrtta, and Tairo-vyaAjana (All with slight difference in terminology are explained in the NP. below). Cf. Taittiriya Pratiidkhya XX. 1-7.

133b-134a. The Anudatta that comes after an Uddtta e or о and gets disappeared (lost in previous -e or -0) is called abhinihita svdra.9,

134b-135a. If in Chandas (Vedic literature), there be a Svarita vowel preceded by an Uddtla that bahu-svdra (svarita that is optionally found everywhere) is called TairavyaiijancP (or rather TairoJVyaftjana according to PratiSakhyas).

135b-136a. When a Svarita vowel comes after Avagraha (separation of a compound word into its component elements as shown in the Vedic Pada pdfha) and if the Avagaha be acute- accented (Udatta), it is called Tiro-virdma (or Tairo-virdma)10 of the PrdtiSdkhyas).

136b-137a. Where an acute-accented (Uddtta) г is seen combined with a grave-accented (Anudatta) i, regard it as Prailiffa Svara.

137b-!38a. The Sastric treatise gives the following characteristic of Paddnta-vrtta: If the vowel is acutely accented, and its combination with the previous Pada (word) becomes separate (For example: ka im veda] RV. VIII.33.7).

138b-140a. The illustration of Jatya11 svdra is: sajdtyena (RV.VIII.20.21). The Kfaipra Svara is in Srutyagre (prob. a misprint). In te manvata (RV.IV. 1.16) is the Abhinihita svdra. The Tairavyahjana svdra is in Utaye (i.e. u-\-utaye). In Vif- kafita (Viskabhita?) there is Tirovirdma. The praUiffa svdra is in hi i govarna (?). The Pddavrtta vowel is in ka im veda, (RV. VIII.33.7).

140b-141a. With the exception of Jdtya svaras, the syllable which follows upon an acute accented syllable is the characteristic of Svarita (the circumflex accent between the acute- uddtta and the grave-anudatta accents).

141b-142a. If the above-mentioned four svdras are uddtta or if they precede an anuddtta, from the scientific point of view it creates vibrations (the wording of the text kanbarfipurfisphuti is confusing). The example of it is juhvbgnih.

142b-143a. When the previous pada (word) ends in i and is followed by -w the intelligent man should clearly understand it to be a short vibration (the larynx vibrating for a short while).

143b-144a. If a pada with two ukaras (и vowels) follows a pada (a word) ending in one should know that there is a long vibration in -t. Here the example is ^dgdhiisfl (some misprint and hence obscurity in the illustration).

144b-145a. It should be known that in the diphthongs (e, ai, о and au) there are three long vibrants (kampas). For example manyd yatha(?), na Indrdbhyam. The rest are declared as short ones.

145b-146a. If there be any Anuddtta affix after many Udattas, it should be regarded as Shiva-Kampa (in the second and third Udatta) if the pratyaya is Udd.lta.

146b-147a. Where two (three, four) syllables arc Udatta and they are followed by an Anuddtta or Udatta, learned people know that the previous and the syllables preceding it are Udatta.

147b-148a. There is no reduplication of r or A. Nor are the second and fourth letters of different classes of consonants (i.e. kh -gh, Ih-dh- etc) geminated.

148b-149a. The fourth letter be combined with the third and the second with the first and the first, middle and end letters of a class (such as k, g, and n) may be geminated.

149b-150a. If in a conjunct consonant, the nonfinal letter (e.g. к, kh, g, gh,) is followed by the nasal, then yaman oi its own uarnas intervenes and becomes the same as the previous syllable.

150b-151a. Seeing the nasals (last letter of each of the five classes) conjoined with the sibilants /,and s- or with semivowels (y, v, r, and /), yama (sounds) recede like travellers on seeing high-waymen.

151b-152a. (When in Vedic recitation) the third and the fourth letter (of the five classes of consonants) is a conjunct, the pada is to begin from the fourth. If the second letter or the third letter is conjoined with -A, the latter word is to begin with -A.

152b-153a. The nasal (utterance) the (upadhmaniya (X p or X ^A) the phonetic element substituted for a Visarga followed by p and ph and the jihvdmUliya (X к or X Щ the phonetic element into which a visarga is changed when followed by k or -kh) seldom form a part of a word; it is not repeated (twice) in the word. If the previous syllable or letter be a conjunct with r or A, the following letter is doubled.

(or the accent intervenes between uddtta and anuddtta or vice- versa), the svarita should be placed at the beginning of the next aAga (pardnga is the consonant which begins the next pada).

154b-155a. When after being separated from the conjunct the consonant that appears freed (and separate) from the next consecutive word, it should be regarded as pUrvdnga. And the consonant which begins the next word is pardfiga.

155b-l56a. The latter part (letter) of the conjunct (should be accented as it) is the main factor (a leader) of the conjunct (as that is a ‘resting-place’ of the svara). The previous member of the conjunct consonant is svarita (but should be pronounced without an accent.)

156b-157a. Anusvdra, end of the pada (word) affix, gemination (due to the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of the next word), the consonant r, and svara-bhakti (vowel-separation, insertion of a consonant (glide) sound in a conjunct with r or / e.g. Tryambakam (yajdmahe) is pronounced as Triyambakam — all these are included under purvllfiga.

157b-158a. At the beginning of a word, or in the middle» in (pronouncing) conjunct consonants and avagraha, ya should be known as a geminated-^a (yy -). It is remembered that in other places it is simply a ya.

158b- 159a. With the exception of the unseparated conjuncts of r and A in the initial and final positions in words and -ry -, other letters or syllables are not duplicated.

159b-c. A conjunct consonant is (metrically) guru (of two matras). A consonant conjoined with a nasal or a visarga are obviously guru. The rest are atomic (laghu- of one matra).

For example An, goh. In this, the first is a conjunct consonant while the second is accompanied by a Visarga. The gurutva (heaviness) of a vowel followed by a conjunct consonant or a visarga is obvious.

160. The Uddtta (acute accent) remains as acute (i.e. the acutely accented vowel remains as it is.). What is Svarita (circumflex accent) becomes anuddtta (grave accent) in the body of the word. The anudatta vowel remains unchanged. The pracaya type of accent becomes anudatta (accentless).

161. The (following) words (occurring in different mantras) such as Agnih, Sutah, Mitram (a friend), Idamy Vayam, Ayd, Vahd, Priyam, Dtltam, Ghrtam, Citta m and Abhi — are anuddtta.

162. The (recitation of) Sruti starts with an unaccented syllabic (anuddtta vowel) in words like Akka [Arka>)} Suta, Tajita^ Kalaia, Sat a and Pavitra,

163. In words like Hdriy Varuna, Varenya, Dhard and Pttrttja, the vowel with r is svarita (circumflex). In the word Naray the vowel with r is always Svarita except in the case of Viivdnara which- na- is svarita.

164. In the two Mantras pertaining to Varuna: viz. ud uttamarh tram Varuna (RV. I. 24. 15) the Va of Varuna is svarita and not ru (despite the r-element).

In the Mantras (1) uru-dkdrdmaramkrtam (RV. VIII. 1. 10) and (2) uru dharesva dohate (misprint for uru-dhareva dohatc RV. VIII. 93. 3), in the words dhdrd dhd is svarita and not the syllable with r (An exception to the rule in v. 163.)

In these examples the syllable whether of one mdtrd (short) or two mdtrds (long), the first half mdtrd is udatta and the rest is anudatta.13

Where a dvi-svara (dissyllabic, containing two vowels) is used, the short vowel should be pronounced as long.

165. In the Kampay ut-svarita and Abhigita (terms explained already) the short-vowel should be protracted. (As to the duration of a mdtrd, according to one authority) a matra extends upto the twinkling of the eye while the others hold that the duration is that of a flash of lightning.

Pracaya is a specific feature or quality (Dharma) of the Anuddtta accent, when a vowel, accented grave, is preceded by a Svarita (Circumflex accent and is followed by another grave-accented vowel. The grave accented vowels which are not followed by an acute or circumflex (accented) vowels are neither distinctly circumflex nor distinctly grave. They are uttered slightly like acute, e.g. Imam me Gahge Yamune Saraeva/i (me, ti herein are uttered thus).

166. While it is opined by some others that duration of a mdtrd is the time required to pronounce the vowel r (the reading rksvara is a bit confusing as literally it means ‘a vowel in a ftK-mantra').

167. A compound may be dissolved but the members of the compound should retain their original form in the Samhita. For that initial syllable14 (?) that Svara is known as the end of the member of the compound.

168a. (Everywhere the words pulra, mitra, sakhi, ahi, Satakratu,, Aditya, Viprajdtaveda. Satpati, Gopati, Vrtrahd, samudra deserve to be dissolved (when members of a compound).

In cases of svarayupuvo (?) Devayavah (Devayuvah), Aritam (Aratim?), Dtvaldlapt (? Devatalaye), Cikitih, dha Gaiva(?), the learned persons do not dissolve the compound.

168b- 169a. According to my view four vivrtis (rather vivrtti — separation of two vowels which were euphonically combined into one) should be known according to the order of the letters. Listen to their names from me.

169b-170. When the first pada has a short vowel which is followed by a long vowel (like a calf followed by the mother cow), the Vivrtti is called Vatsdnusrta, but the vivrtti in which the previous pada ends in a long vowel followed by a short vowel in the latter pada, is called Vatsdnusdrini. When vowels in both the padas are short, it is called Pakavati, while vowels in both the Padas are long, that vivrtti is called pipilika.

The text gives the above portion in brackets. Hence this matter is bracketted here. It is included under v. no. 168, although the printed text gives it no number.

168b AT: These verses describe the pause (technically called Virdma in Pratisakhya works) which is to be taken (at the end of the word or at the end of the first member of the compound (which is shown split up in the Padapi(ha) or inside a word or at the end of the word or at the end of a vowel when it is followed by another vowel. The Taittiriya Pratiidkhya (XXII, 13) gives four kinds of such pauses: (1) Rg-virdma — pause at the end of a foot or a verse and the duration of the pause in three mdtras. (2) Pada-uirdma pause of two mdlrds between two words and e.g. iff tvd urje ivd. (3) A pause of one mdtrd between two words the preceding one ending in a vowel, and the following one beginning with a vowel but the vowels are not euphonically combined e.g. sa idhdnah. (4) A pause of half a mdtrd between two vowels inside a word e.g. dra-ugam.171. According to some other teachers, the duiation between these two is half, while according to others it is just atomic (anumdtrikam).

172. When m (makdra) is followed by affixes beginning with the consonant r, s, and s, the m is changed into anusvdra. If followed by -t/- (p-v- in the print of text is wrong) and /-, it becomes para-savarna> while before sparaa varna contact consonants viz. ka-vargu, ca-varga, ta-varga etc., it is changed to the last (nasalised) consonant.

173. When the preceding word ends in -л and is followed by a vowel beginning the next word, the vowel preceding -л in the previous word is coloured (affected and changed into nasalized pronunciation) and hence it is called ‘coloured rakta (e. g. mahdn asi mahZ Ъ asi).

174. If the preceding word ends in -л and is followed by y-, v- and A- (in the following word,) half the mdtrd of the vowel preceding -л is slightly (atom-like) coloured (i.e. nasalised).

175. If the previous word ends in a conjunct of л and is followed by another word it is changed into four forms. Sometimes it becomes r (repha), sometimes it colours (slightly nasalises) the syllable, sometimes it is dropped and sometimes it becomes an anusvdra.

176. The colour (rahga) is emanated from the heart and resembles the sound produced by a bell-metal. It is soft and of two mdtrds in duration, as illustrated in the pronunciation of dadhvan. (In other words, rahga is the nasalisation of a vowel)

Some S’tkfd treatises say that the duration between these different Vivrttis should be one mdtrdy one half wdtrA, three-fourth mdtrd and one fourth mdtrd respectively. But the duration between two words of a compound-word split up in the Pada-patha should be one mdtrd.

177. Just as a woman from Saurastra pronounces (the nasalized vowel in) Агй, the same way raitga of nasalized vowel be produced.16 This is my opinion, О Narada.

178. The four classes of words [viz. Kdma (substantives), Akhydta (verbs), Upasarga (prepositions) and Nipdta (particles)] end in the ten syllables viz. g, d> d, b> ri, n, ny my and s. These are declared as word endings.

179. The vowel (accent) may be acute, grave or circumflex, consonants have to follow the svara (they have no independent accentual status.)

180. Authoritative preceptors have declared the prominence of only three accents of svaras. Consonants are like beads while vowels are the thread (which weaves and holds them together),

181. Just as a powerful monarch snatches away (and annexes) the kingdom of a weak king, similarly the (accented) vowel, being powerful, takes possession of the weak consonants.

182. O-Bhava (i.e. Oru-Bhava in the NP is a misprint), vivrtti, i, s, r, (repha) and the special pronunciation of the

Visarga before A:-, kh- and p-y ph- (specially known as jihva-mUliya and upadhmdniya. These eight are the transformations of sibilants.

183. The interval between two vowels plared near each other in Samhita1 should be regarded as visarga or is changed to a palatal.

184. If in a penultimate diphthong (like e, o9 ai and au) у or v is dropped, there is the consonantal vivrtti, fawftr and the pratisarhhitd of vowels.

185. Where the pause is on a sibilant (and under exceptional cases) there is -v- in the Sandhi (Sambhavah?), that vivrtti or hiatus should be called vowel-hiatus (svara-viurtti)

186. If the vowel о of the previous pada is to be linked up (prasandhdna17), then the next pada begins with r (e. g. vdyo r-). And this ‘link up should be regarded as vowel-ending. What is different from this is the ‘link-up (Prasandhdna) of sibilants.

187-188. If the first or the last letter of a class (e. g. л- of the dental class) are at the end of a pada and is followed by sibilants, Л f and s, it is changed to the second position. When they are combined w.:th sibilants as the second member of the conjunct, the first member of the conjunct consonant, even if it be the first lettcr(like t, k} p) of a class is to be shown (pronounced) as the second letter (such as thy kh> ph) but should not be recognised or represented as actually the second letter e. g. Mat-sya, K-shura, Ap-saras (their pronunciation will have some aspiratory tinge like thy kh> or ph but for all purposes they are t, ky and p).

189. In ordinary metrics, to understand the metre, etc. of a verse (Sloka]) there are three causes: (1) Chandomdnaf

(2) Vrtta (the metre) and (3) the end of the pdda (Pdddnta). But Vedic mantras (Res) have been composed in their own respective metres (like Gdyatriy Jagatiy Triffubh); the metrical feet of ordinary metres are governed by the number of letters and their being of one or two mdtrds.

190. The r-element present in the vowel r or in Svarabhakti should be indicated as a separate syllable (for calculation of mdtrds or Akfaras. But in Svarabhakti the letter (without the repha, -r- element) should be calculated alongwith the affix.

191. In the letter r, the consonantal r is distinctly apprehended and its nature as a vowel (vowel form) is clearly perceived. If the r is not conjoined with a sibilant, know it to be laghu (short, of one matra only).

192. If the vowel r, is combined with a sibilant and is compressed18 in pronunciation, the syllable should be regarded as a guru (heavy i.e. of two matras). Here the illustration is (the form) Trcam. Here r is short.

193. There is no doubt that in the following five instances, the (vowel) r is short (the illustrations are: RsaBhay Grhita, Brhaspatiy Prthivi and Nir-rti).

194. In case of words with conjuncts beginning with/,;, s} hy and r in the initial position, there is internal svarabhakti (in the same word without insertion of i, or и as a glide), when it is being conjoined with another word.

195. Svarabhakti is of two types — one characterised by r, the vowel and the other by r, the consonant. These are known as Svarodd and Vyanjanodd (respectively) by contemplative grammarians.

196. The learned ones know that the svarabhakti in the case of sibilants (S, and s) is (vowel-born) svarodayd and open (vivrta)y while that with h is vyanjanodayd (consonant-born) and closed (sarhvrta).

197. A person resorting to svarabhakti should avoid three defects viz. Svarabhakti with /, и and a faulty (pronunciation).

198. The following syllables are not regarded as Laghu (short, of the duration of one Mdtrd): 1. That which is followed by a conjunct consonant; (2) or which is followed by ch;

(3) oris combined with a Visarga; (4) or which possesses two matras (“is long) or (5) is at the end of a foot (word) or (6) be combined with an Anusvdra or (7) ends in ghuf (the first five case affixes).

199. The metre (viz. Aryd) whose first and third foot consists of twelve mdtrds, the second contains eighteen and the last consists of fifteen mdtrds only. This characteristic has been spoken of (the Aryd). That (metre) which is different from this is Vipuld.

200. If a syllable is short (laghu) and if it is not followed by a conjunct consonant, it is still laghu (of one mdtrd only). If a short (vowelled) syllable is followed by a conjunct consonant or if it itself is long, it should be regarded as guru (heavy or long of two mdtrds).

201-202a. Where Vivrtti is found in front of the vowel, it should be regarded as a guru vowel, there is no (prevalence of) Kfaipra (or kfipra-sandhi)1.

202b-203. There are eight kinds or types of svaras of a pada: Antoddtta, Adyuddtta7 Uddtta, Anuddtta, Nica-Svarita,

Madhyoddtta, Svarita, Dviruddtta. These are the eight designations of those padas.

(7) Vanaspatih (AV. XII. 3. 15). Here both va and spa are Udatta. This is an instance of Dvirudatta.

(8) Tainyat (?). This is Madhyodatta. Nipatas arc Anu- datta. In prepositions, Svarita follows the initial vowel. There are two Anudattas in Akhyatas (conjugations?). The dhdrya letter after the svarita e.g. nifiotd satsi. Here Satsi is a dhdrya letter, as it follows the svarita in о ta which arc the firacaya sthanas. There is the previous Svarita, becomes toned down to a grave accent.

205. A wise reciter should tone down the svara to a grave accent wherever pracaya is seen. Where there is merely a soft circumflex accent, there is no need to lone it down.

206. The duty of a preceptor is of five types — Mukha (mouth, Nydsa, Karana. Pratijha and Uccarana. It is said here that utterance with a vow (гapratijna uccarana) or positive vocal utterance is creditable.

Those (castes) to whom the science of shiksha is not available (or who are not eligible for the same), the affirmative assertion (backed by a tradition of gurus) is to be resorted to. For Karana (phonetic treatise) is of the form of the affirmative teachings (of traditional gurus).

207. О Narada! You, Tumburu, Vasisjha, Visvavasu and other Gandharvas are not able to comprehend the entire lore of Sama-singing due to the niceties and subtleties of the Svara-shastra.

208. You should always take care of your gastric fire (i.e. digestive capacity). Take in wholesome (?) food which contributes to it). When food is digested, one should wake up at dawn and meditate on the Brahman.

209. It is desired (prescribed) that after autumnal equinox, to vernal equinox, one should get up early at dawn for the study (and recitation of the Vedas).

210. Getting up early in the morning, one should silently chew the tooth-brush twig of (any of) the following trees: Mango, Palasa (Butea frondosa), Bilva (Aegle Marmelos), Apamarga (Achyranthes Aspera), Sirisa (Acacia Sirissa).

211. The following trees too are holy: Khadira, Kadamba, Karavlra, and Karaftja. All thorny and milk-exuding trees are holy and conducive to fame.

212. By using these for the purification of the mouth, sweetness in tone and subtlety of tone in generated. He is able to utter every syllable clearly and distinctly as recognised by the ancient teacher Audavati (a misprint in the text for Audavraji — the ancient sage and scholar of Vedic grammar, who revised the original text of the Rk-tantra-Pratifakhya of the Sama Veda).

213. The student should always take in Triphald (the three Myrobalans) along with salt. This increases digestive power and intellect, heightens the clarity of tones and distinctness in the utterance of letters (syllables).

214. After performing the necessary morning duties (like brushing the teeth, taking bath, which is necessary for the care of the gastric fire, he should purify himself by taking in honey (DhQma in the printed text is probably a misprint for Madhu) and ghee, and then start the recitation.

215. It is the general rule in all branches of the Veda that one should start recitation in a low tone. After reciting seven Mantras in a low tone, one should then utter in the desirable (or prescribed) tone.

216. At dawn, one should not strain his voice as would obstruct the normal breathing. For such obstructions in breathing cause wrong intonation (Vaisvarya). Not merely that, it certainly spoils the sweetness of vowels and consonants.

217. Just as there is no absolvement to a person eating forbidden food coming from an evil source, as in the case of saving the life of a person (bitten by a poisonous serpent) from the poison of the venomous serpent in the form of the sin of wrong pronunciation in this case), similarly a person who imbibes the fruitless (lit. burnt) teaching (of Vedas etc.) with wrong pronunciation, accentuation etc., of syllables from a bad (incompetent) teacher (Ku-tirtha) cannot escape the sin of distorted pronunciation, etc. learnt from that sinful teacher (like serpent-poison spread within the body).

218. The Vedas, coming from (i.e. taught by) a good teacher well-rehearsed and well-established in good intonation — when orally recited shine beautifully.

219. A person with frightful appearance, protruding lips, pronouncing all syllables through the nose or with a choked voice or tongue-tied (due to difficulty in the movements of the tongue) is not eligible to utter Mantras.

220. A person exercising control over his mind and one who has concentrated it and whose teeth and lips arc shapely, becomes pure after performing his bath, avoids singing (orsingsong manner) should pronounce the syllables of the Mantras (clearly).

221. The following five types of persons cannot grasp a new lore: — A fierce person, a stubborn or arrogant one, an idle person, a sick person and one with unsteady (scattered) mind.

222. One should acquire learning slowly, should hoard wealth slowly (i.e. saving even small amounts); one should climb a mountain slowly (by degrees); one should travel on foot slowly (not more than a Yojana at a stretch).

223. An ant walking slowly and steadily covers even a thousand Yojanas. But Garuda, if he does not move at all, cannot cover the distance of even a single foot.

224. A (person whose) speech is alfected by sins (or defects) does not deserve to utter the text of the Vedas just as a clever (intelligent) beautiful maiden does not deserve to hold a conversation with a deaf person.

225. He who recites the Vedas in a low mumbling voice as though he is afraid, remains always in doubt about thousands of its forms.

226. Studies carried on with the help of books only and not under (i. e. near) a preceptor, do not shine in the assembly of learned men like a woman impregnated (out of wedlock) by a paramour (from point of social status).

227. Having observed how even a heap of collyrium disappears (by its daily use)and how ant-hills become accumulated in a high, huge heaps (by slow but continuous additions of particles of earth by ants), one must utilise every day by engaging one’s self in religious gifts, studies and religious acts.

228. That a very big ant-hill is built up by insects (ants) with very small particles of earth is not due to the (immense) physical power (of the ants). Sheer hard work is its cause.

229. If a lore is studied (repeatedly) for thousands of times and taught to pupils for hundreds of times, it (automatically) comes to the tip of the tongue like water flowing from a higher level to a lower level.

230. Just as horses of noble breed go to sleep for the half part of half the night (i.e. for three hours only), similarly sleep does not (nay should not) occupy the eyes of students for a long period.

231. A student should not be late for studies by spending a long time for his meals. Nor should he be enmeshed in temptations about women. A person desirous of mastering a lore should traverse (fig. study) long and fast like eagles and swans flying over seas.

232. A person who is afraid of (i.e. does not mix with) crowds of men and shuns the formation of company of friends as if it were a hell, and protects himself against association with women as if they were ogresses — only such a person attains mastery over learning.

233. Dishonest persons do not get wealth (or learning); nor do cowards or persons whose heads are swollen with pride; nor can people afraid of public criticism or who put off their work (out of procrastination) can earn money or learn a lore.

234. Just as a person digging with a spade or pick-axe (reaches the water-level in the bowels of the earth and) gets water, so, a student, bent on rendering service to the teacher, obtains learning possessed by the teacher.

235. Learning can be obtained either by rendering service to the teacher or by paying sumptuous amount of money (as the fee) or by exchange of one type of lore for another (by imparting one’s expertise in a particular field for learning the special technique of another field). Otherwise learning cannot be mastered.

236. Even if one masters a lore by dint of his intellectual gifts, even without serving a teacher, it does not yield fruit to him like a barren young woman.

237. О Narada! In this way, I have briefly indicated to you the treatise on Shiksha by just pointing out to its direction. By understanding this first accessory to the Veda, one becomes eligible to be absorbed in the Brahman.

1. It is not understood why Ni?ada (Atisvdra) is omitted. Cf. Tait, Prdtiidkhya XXI11. 12.

2. Areika (pertaining toljtks), Gdthika (pertaining to Gathas) and Sdmika (pertaining to SAma-singing).

3. This refers to the wrong pronunciation of Indra-Satru in svdhendra- iatrur vardhasva (TS. II. 5.2.1), by vrtra’s father.

5. Kuharapa also means indistinct pronunciation in low tone. Cf. Pfaradiya shiksha I 3.11-12.

8. Abhinihita is a <andhi or euphonic combination in which the vowel a, as a first or second member, is absorbed into the other member, e.g. ralhebhyah-\-agni=rathebhyogne от daiufe-\-agne — ddfufe'gne. Here a- of agni is absorbed in the preceding -o and -e. — A Diet, of Sk. grammar, p. 34.

9. Here the definition in the NP does not explain why VyaRjand is associated with this vowel. The fact is that this is a kind of svnrita or circumflex-accented vowel which follows the acute-accented vowel, with the intervention of a consonant between the acute-accented vowel and the circumflex vowel which (vowel) was originally grave, e.g. idey havye. Here the vowel — t is a Tairo-vyaRjana-svaritn. cf. Svaro vyaRjana-yutas tairo-vyanjanah — Vdjasaneyi Prdtiidkhya I. 117.

10. Tairo-virama is a kind of svarita, a vowel with a circumflex accent which follows an acute-accented vowel characterised by an Avagraha, i.e. coming at the end of the first member of compound e.g. gopataviii gopatau. Here the vowel a of pa which follows the () avagraha is called Tairo-virdma- svarita. — A Diet, of Sk. gram, p. 178.

11. Jdtya is a variety of svarita or circumflex accent, e.g. svah nyak. Cf. Rk Prdtiidkhya IV7.4.

12. yama is a twin letter available in pronunciation before a nasal letter and similar to it, when the nasal consonant is preceded by any one of the four consonants of the five classes. The S. К. on Pan. VIII.1.1 explains it as a transitional sound intervening between a non-nasal and the following nasal as a counterpart of the non-nasal, e.g. Aggnifi, ghghnanti, cakhkhnatuh,

13. Pan. I. 2.32 S.K. explains aditQh=x\i first half of the mdtrd should be understood as Udatta and the latter half as Anudatta.

16. Cf. Sarhhitdydih yat svarayor antaram tad wpff//-sarhjflarfi sySt — Uwata on aaunakag fjtk-prdtiiahhya IIA This interval is one mdtrd according to the Taittiriya Prdtifdkhya XXII. 13 but is of only one half Mdtrd according to Rk. Tantra-35.

17. PrasandhAna — this term means repeating a word in the krama-patha and joining it with the following word e.g. RV.I. I to be recited thus: lie purohitnm, рит о hit am yajftasya. But in this verse, “joining or linking up” is implied.

18. When in pronunciation of vowels and consonants a fault is caused by the compression or contraction of the place of utterance, it is called Plfana cf. vyahjnndndm atiprayairnnoccira^unn pidanam.

19. According to Prdtiidkhyas, a euphonic combination of the vowel i, ut f, /, with a following dissimilar vowel. The name kfipra (quick, short) is given to this Sandhi as the vowel, short or long which is turned into a consonant, becomes very short.

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