Examine the Simple Sentence in English and Ukrainian.

Any coherent connection of words according to a definite syntactic pattern with some communicative purpose related to reality is considered to be a sentence. It is the main communicative language unit. In the contrasted languages there are distinguished such structural types of sentences:1) two-member sent.; 2) one-member sent.

Two-member sentences have a larger representation in English than in Ukrainian, constituting a typological divergence of the two languages. Two-member sentences, non-existent in Ukrainian, are as follows:

1. Impersonal sentences which are introduced by the impersonal pronoun it: It is thundering. It snowed.

2. Indefinite personal sentences with the subject expressed by the indefinite personal pronoun one, they, you: One says. They say. You don’t say so.

3. Sentence with the introductory it or there: It is time to start. There is nothing to say.

4. Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed by a preposition: He was sent for. The bed was not slept in.

5. Sentences with the secondary predication: I thought him to be a teacher. We saw her cross the street.

One-member sentences have a larger number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the morphological nature of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language

The definite personal sentences. The doer of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb, eg: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю. Любіть (ви / всі) Україну всім серцем своїм…

The indefinite personal sentences in which their main part, i. e., the verbal component, correlates with the finite verb in the third person plural. Its action may refer to the present, past of future in the indicative, imperative or in the subjunctive mood, eg: Сіяли всю ніч. Дзвонять в усі дзвони. Давніх друзів не забувають.

The generalized personal sentences are similar to definite personal sentences. The action of their main part refers to any person correlating with the second person in singular or plural of the indicative or imperative mood, eg: За правду й за народ ставай життям! Дивиться лисицею, а думає вовком! Поживемо – побачимо!

Impersonal sentences: Остапові не спалось. Роботу покинуто. Неможливо знищити.

The allomorphic one-member sentences are:

A. Imperative (inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP structure: Keep aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on!– Не підходь, не підходь! Проходьте, проходьте!

B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally coincide in English and Ukrainian with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! Damn your money Злодії! Вогонь! Як гарно! К бісу твої гроші!

С. Infinitival sentences in the contrasted languages have practically identical structural forms: To be or not to be? To be alive! Бути чи не бути? Бути живим!

D. Elliptical sentence is a shorter form of sentence which some words have been omitted, but it retains the same meaning. It is used so that we can avoid unnecessary repeated words. (Taking risks? Подумав?).

E. Nominative (Night. Measure for Measure. Темнота та тиша. Чудовий сон!);

One-Word Sentences/Quasi-Sentences are speech units devoid of the binary S – P (a single S or P) structure. They may consist of a single word or of a functionally equivalent phrase expressing affirmation, negation, address or emotive/incentive meaning. One-word sentences serve to establish or to disjoin the speech contact.

1. Affirmative are usually short answers to the preceding questions, eg: “A real beauty?” – “Indeed”. “Do you love me?” – “Uh huh”. - Аякже … Так! Я буду крізь сльози сміятись.

2. Negative sentences express negation. Their most common components in English and Ukrainian are no, not yet, not at all; ні, зовсім ні, не так, та ні, ще ні, eg: “Hear anything?” – “No. Not a thing”. “You can’t help us at all?” – “Not at all”. (G.Greene) “Ні, ні! Що ти кажеш? Може, й випадково. Ні.(Кочерга)

3. Interrogative convey questions, inquiry, doubt, eg: “…what on earth’s the matter?” –“ Nothing. Why?”. Her voice trembled a little. “Well?”. “В мене екзамен був”. – “Ну і як?”

4. Emotional and exclamatory may be expressed by interjections and other functional words together with notionals: “Goodness sakes! “Not time yet!”. “Го-го! “Ах, он як! Розумію.

5. Incentive and evaluative sentences are also formed from interjections or their functional equivalents which may be phrases or notionals by nature: ”Bosh! Don’t be moral”. “Ssh!” said the Daddy “Їй-богу ж ні!” “Овва. “
6. Vocative sentences express direct address. They are more metacommunicative in the contrasted languages, than any other of the above-given onemember sentences. They mostly require a response, for example: “Tom! Tom!” – No answer “Hullo Pyle”. “ Україно! Ти для мене диво! “

Екзаменаційний білет № 6
1. Contrast the grammatical category of case of the English and Ukrainian Noun.
Grammatical category of case marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence and finds a grammatical expression in the language. Case is the morphological category of the noun shows the relations of the object to other objects and phenomena. The category of case in English is represented by zero inflexion – common case and positive inflexion ’s/’ possessive case which is added to a noun in singular (’s) or in plural (’), cf. boy:: boy’s, boys:: boys’. The common case is the form in which the English noun can fulfill functions of almost all parts of a sentence. The possessive case has a very narrow sphere of usage: the noun in its case fulfills the function of only one part of the sentence – the attribute which express the belonging or the size. The English possessive case has two main usages: a) the dependent possessive case (залежний присвійний відмінок) – the doctor’s house, the girl’s hand, my brother’s arrival, which always fulfills the function of the attributive and b) independent possessive case, which is used independently without the noun that follows it at the chemist’s, at my friend’s, to the baker’s.
In Ukrainian language there are 7 cases of noun which have different inflexions in singular and in plural depending on the gender, declension and the consonant group of the noun. The nominative case performs the functions of the subject in the sentence (А Рось кипіла в кам’яному ложі). The genitive case has the meaning of belonging to some person or thing (батько Миколи), objective relations (не дістав паперу). The dative case denotes a person for whom a certain action takes place (привіт другові); possession (пам’ятник Іванові Франку). The accusative case has the objective meaning (вимкнути світло). The instrumental case abounds in such meanings: objective (копати лопатою), circumstantial (їхати дорогою), denoting the accomplice of the doer of some action (батьки з дочкою); The locative case is always used with a preposition. The most important meanings are circumstantial (ходити по березі, товариство по духу). The vocative case denotes the addressing to some person or personified object (мати, кицю).
2. Analyze structural types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.
The structural types of sentences are common in the contrasted languages: Simple: extended and unextended; one-member and two-member; complete and elliptical. Composite: compound and complex.
The basic kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P (Subject — Predicate) mode. Two-member sentences have a larger representation in English than in Ukrainian, constituting a typological divergence of the two languages. Two-member sentences, non-existent in Ukrainian, are as follows:

1. Impersonal sentences which are introduced by the impersonal pronoun it: It is thundering. It snowed.

2. Indefinite personal sentences with the subject expressed by the indefinite personal pronoun one, they, you: One says. They say. You don’t say so.

3. Sentence with the introductory it or there: It is time to start. There is nothing to say.

4. Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed by a preposition: He was sent for. The bed was not slept in.

5. Sentences with the secondary predication: I thought him to be a teacher. We saw her cross the street.

One-member sentences have a larger number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the morphological nature of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language

The definite personal sentences. The doer of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb, eg: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю. Любіть (ви / всі) Україну всім серцем своїм…

The indefinite personal sentences in which their main part, i. e., the verbal component, correlates with the finite verb in the third person plural. Its action may refer to the present, past of future in the indicative, imperative or in the subjunctive mood, eg: Сіяли всю ніч. Дзвонять в усі дзвони. Давніх друзів не забувають.

The generalized personal sentences are similar to definite personal sentences. The action of their main part refers to any person correlating with the second person in singular or plural of the indicative or imperative mood, eg: За правду й за народ ставай життям! Дивиться лисицею, а думає вовком! Поживемо – побачимо!

Impersonal sentences: Остапові не спалось. Роботу покинуто. Неможливо знищити.

The allomorphic one-member sentences are:

A. Imperative (inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP structure: Keep aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on!– Не підходь, не підходь! Проходьте, проходьте!

B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally coincide in English and Ukrainian with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! Damn your money Злодії! Вогонь! Як гарно! К бісу твої гроші!

С. Infinitival sentences in the contrasted languages have practically identical structural forms: To be or not to be? To be alive! Бути чи не бути? Бути живим!

D. Elliptical sentence is a shorter form of sentence which some words have been omitted, but it retains the same meaning. It is used so that we can avoid unnecessary repeated words. (Taking risks? Подумав?).

E. Nominative (Night. Measure for Measure. Темнота та тиша. Чудовий сон!);

One-Word Sentences/Quasi-Sentences are speech units devoid of the binary S – P (a single S or P) structure. They may consist of a single word or of a functionally equivalent phrase expressing affirmation, negation, address or emotive/incentive meaning. One-word sentences serve to establish or to disjoin the speech contact.

1. Affirmative are usually short answers to the preceding questions, eg: “A real beauty?” – “Indeed”. “Do you love me?” – “Uh huh”. - Аякже … Так! Я буду крізь сльози сміятись.

2. Negative sentences express negation. Their most common components in English and Ukrainian are no, not yet, not at all; ні, зовсім ні, не так, та ні, ще ні, eg: “Hear anything?” – “No. Not a thing”. “You can’t help us at all?” – “Not at all”. (G.Greene) “Ні, ні! Що ти кажеш? Може, й випадково. Ні.(Кочерга)

3. Interrogative convey questions, inquiry, doubt, eg: “…what on earth’s the matter?” –“ Nothing. Why?”. Her voice trembled a little. “Well?”. “В мене екзамен був”. – “Ну і як?”

4. Emotional and exclamatory may be expressed by interjections and other functional words together with notionals: “Goodness sakes! “Not time yet!”. “Го-го! “Ах, он як! Розумію.

5. Incentive and evaluative sentences are also formed from interjections or their functional equivalents which may be phrases or notionals by nature: ”Bosh! Don’t be moral”. “Ssh!” said the Daddy “Їй-богу ж ні!” “Овва. “
6. Vocative sentences express direct address. They are more metacommunicative in the contrasted languages, than any other of the above-given onemember sentences. They mostly require a response, for example: “Tom! Tom!” – No answer “Hullo Pyle”. “ Україно! Ти для мене диво! “

Another difference of paramount importance between the two languages is that of word order. WO in English is of much greater importance than in Ukrainian. The word order in the English sentence is fixed, for English as an analytic language relies much on the order of sentence constituents to convey important grammatical information.
Another important typological difference between English and Ukrainian concerns ellipsis (omitting some elements of the sentence to avoid repetition). Ellipsis is the most vivid manifestation of “word economy”. Elliptical sentences are typical of both English and Ukrainian, but Ukrainian as a synthetic language has far more possibilities for missing out informatively redundant elements of the sentence.
A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian contains two or more primary predication centers mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses. But still there are some divergent features.
1. In English causative-resultative relations may be expressed not only by subordination, but by coordination as well: It was not yet daylight, for the candle was burning. She hasn’t much stress in her, so I easily kept her quiet. In Ukrainian this meaning is expressed only by subordinate clauses.
2. Compound coordinate sentences are more spread in Ukrainian. Ukrainian compound sentences with connectives аж, коли, як expressing the meaning of a sudden, unexpected event in English are transformed into subordinate sentences with the meaning of unexpectedness expressed lexically: Іду лісом, аж біжить лисиця. – I was going through the forest when suddenly a fox came running.
3. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
4. Attributive sentences are of two types in both contrasted languages – restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive attributive clauses are more tightly connected with the main clause, their elimination leads to the ambiguity of the sentence, e.g.: Where is the book that I gave you yesterday? Де книжка, яку я тобі вчора дав? Non-restrictive attributive clauses can be easily removed without making the main clause semantically incomplete: This was a hit at George, who was notoriously hard up – Це був випад проти Джорджа, який сидів без грошей.

Екзаменаційний білет № 7
1. Compare the grammatical category of number of the English and Ukrainian Noun.
The only morphological category of the noun, which is almost always marked in present-day English, is that of number. Like in Ukrainian, it is mostly realized synthetically, i.e. through zero and marked inflexions: child — children, ox — oxen, and correspondingly baths, cargos, bushes, watches, countries etc. An irregularity can be observed in the position of the English inflexion -s in various compounds, e.g.: forget-me-not = forget-me-nots, merry-go-round = merry-go-rounds, Commander-in-chief = Commanders-in chief.
Completely allomorphic, i.e. pertained only to English is the formation of plural number by way of sound interchange: foot — feet, tooth — teeth, goose — geese; man — men, woman — women; louse — lice, mouse – mice. Unlike English number inflexions, Ukrainian inflexions are predetermined by the gender of the noun, its declension and the final consonant or vowel, which can, respectively, be hard, soft or mixed (sibilant).
There are four declensions of Ukrainian noun: 1 - nouns of masculine, feminine and common gender ending in -а (cf. Микола, бригада, площа) or -я (cf. Ілля, земля, суддя); 2 - masculine nouns ending in a consonant, -й, -о (робітник, товариш, край, батько) and nouns of neuter gender ending in -о, -е, -я except those which do not have suffixes - ат, -ят, -ен in indirect cases (вікно, поле, плече, знання); 3 - feminine nouns ending in a consonant (ніч, любов, мідь) and the noun мати; 4 - nouns of neuter gender ending in -а, (курча), -я (теля) which have suffixes -ат, -ят, -ен in indirect cases (плем’я).
Typologically isomorphic is the existence of singularia and pluralia tantum nouns mostly expressing quantity.

The singularia tantum include some semantic groups of mainly common nouns, which rarely denote singular notions like parts of the world: the North, the South, names of material: iron, copper,срідло, золото; collective nouns: rubbish, hair, білизна; abstract notions: courage, knowledge, знання, кохання. Therefore, the main classes of singularia tantum nouns are of isomorphic nature, though their representation is not always equal in the contrasted languages.

Pluralia tantum nouns include:- Summation names trousers/штани, spectacles/окуляри, leggings/легінси, scales/терези; - Names of remnants: scraps/покидьки, sweepings/зметини, leavings/недоїдки, siftings/недопитки; - Some geographic names: Athens/Афіни, the Netherlands/Нідерланди, the Alps/Альпи, the Carpathians/Карпати, the Bermudas/Бермуди etc.; - Names of games: cards/карти, drafts/дротики/шахи, skittles/кеглі.

Allomorphic are some English pluralia tantum nouns denoting abstract (contents/зміст) and concrete notions (barracks/казарма, goods/товар, police/поліція, arms/зброя). On the other hand, allomorphic are Ukrainian pluralia tantum nouns like вершки/сream, дріжджі/yeast, дрова/wood, гроші/money, фінанси/finance, проводи/seeing-off. Neither has English equivalents of Ukrainian nouns like посиденьки, походеньки, побігеньки, витребеньки; вечірниці; ласощі, пустощі, гульбищі, прикрощі, мудрощі, ревнощі, скупощі, хвастощі, both for grammatical and semantic reasons.

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