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The Communicative types of utterances in English and Ukrainian.





Екзаменаційний білет № 4

1. Analyze Grammatical Classes of Words in English and Ukrainian.
The main subdivision of words into notional and functional is indisputable in the contrasted languages.
Linguists are unanimous as for the existence of isomorphic set of parts of speech in English and Ukrainian. Parts of speech are grouped according to the following criteria: semantic – they are united according to the same general grammatical meaning (e.g., substantivity – for nouns, verbiality – for verbs, quality – for adjectives, the quality of the quality – for adverbs, number – for numerals, state – for statives); morphological – a set of certain grammatical categories; it is important for Ukrainian, but far less important for English; syntactic – the functions in the sentence; specific modifiers they possess; typical valency; this criterion is more important for English than Ukrainian, because of the productivity of conversion; word-building.

Functionals are deprived of semantics, they only indicate relations between other words; they possess no grammatical categories; functionals are never treated as parts of the sentence.
A typologically more relevant classification has been suggested for English notionals by C. T. Hockett who distinguishes "parts of speech" and "classes of words". Among the notionals three pure "classes of words" (regular parts of speech) are distinguished: "class N words", "class V words" and "class A words". Thus, "classes of words" clearly reflect the amorphous grammatical nature of many English nouns, verbs, adjectives and sometimes adverbs which in the course of their historical development have been reduced, as a rale, to regular roots or stems. The word "export", for example, may be noun or verb (when indicated by stress or determined by the particle "to"). "blue" may be noun (the blue of the sky), adjective (the blue sky), or verb (to blue smth.).
In Ukrainian, on the other hand, the lexical meaning and "formal" (morphological) characteristics of such notional words as експорт, синь, синій, синіти, синіючий, синіючи, etc. are always explicitly displayed already at language level, i.e. when taken separately, out of context (as in dictionaries). Therefore, many notionals in English, unlike their lexico-grammatical equivalents in Ukrainian, are variable, i. e. they may change their nature depending on the contextual environment and their functional significance which they acquire in a syntaxeme.
There is much common ground for a typological contrasting of the functional parts of speech as well, which in English and Ukrainian have often their lexico-grammatical nature quite explicit already at language level. This is observed, for example, in case of conjunctions (and, but, or, if, either - or, neither - nor, etc.), prepositions (at, in, on, under), interjections (ah, oh, alas, humph), and some particles (not, to). Most of these functionals, except for the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian. For example: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or, чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As a result, these and a number of other functionals in English and Ukrainian are typologically relevant, i. e. Isomorphic.
As to the functionals (semi-notional words, as they are still sometimes called) their number in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English), сполучники, прийменники, модальні слова та вирази, частки, вигуки.

2. Compare The Complex Sentence in English and Ukrainian.
Complex sentences present an isomorphic type in the system of composite sentences of the contrasted languages. These sentences consist of two or more complex sentences preceding and following the co-ordinate conjunction. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
This type of composite sentence has some isomorphic features in the contrasted languages: 1) the complex sentence has a polypredicative nature; 2) it is characterised by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some logico-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include predicative, objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the corresponding clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding position/place in regard to the matrix clause.
The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-groups. Hence, there are distinguished the typologically relevant groups of subordinate clauses:
In English and In Ukrainian 1.Substantive-nominal - Субстантивно-номінативні: subject subordinate clauses (підметові підрядні речення); predicative subordinate clauses (присудкові підрядні речення); objective subordinate clauses (додаткові підрядні речення). 2.Qualitatively-nominal - Квалітативно-номінативні: descriptive attributive clauses (описові атрибутивні підрядні речення), restrictive/limiting attributive (обмежуючі атрибутивні підрядні речення). 3.Adverbial Clauses (Адвербіальні підрядні речення) of time, place, purpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition.

Екзаменаційний білет № 5

1. Compare The Noun in English and Ukrainian.

Noun is a part of speech, which is characterized by the following features in English and Ukrainian: - possesses the categories of number, case and gender. Lexico-grammatical meaning of substance; Typologically isomorphic are the main paradigmatic classes of nouns: common and proper names.
The noun is characterized in the contrasted languages by the existence of a system of suffixes and prefixes performing, as a rule, isomorphic functions in both contrasted languages. These suffixes fall into several common in English and Ukrainian subgroups: productive and unproductive suffixes, native and borrowed (international), as well as different semantic groups of suffixes which, when added to various roots or stems, may form agent nouns.

The Category of Number. The only morphological category of the noun, which is almost always marked in present-day English, is that of number. Like in Ukrainian, it is mostly realized synthetically, i.e. through zero and marked inflexions: childchildren, oxoxen, and correspondingly baths, cargos, bushes, watches, countries etc. An irregularity can be observed in the position of the English inflexion -s in various compounds, e.g.: forget-me-not = forget-me-nots, merry-go-round = merry-go-rounds, Commander-in-chief = Commanders-in chief.

Completely allomorphic, i.e. pertained only to English is the formation of plural number by way of sound interchange: foot — feet, toothteeth, goosegeese; manmen, womanwomen; louselice, mouse – mice. Unlike English number inflexions, Ukrainian inflexions are predetermined by the gender of the noun, its declension and the final consonant or vowel, which can, respectively, be hard, soft or mixed (sibilant).

There are four declensions of Ukrainian noun: 1 - nouns of masculine, feminine and common gender ending in -а (cf. Микола, бригада, площа) or -я (cf. Ілля, земля, суддя); 2 - masculine nouns ending in a consonant, -й, -о (робітник, товариш, край, батько) and nouns of neuter gender ending in -о, -е, -я except those which do not have suffixes - ат, -ят, -ен in indirect cases (вікно, поле, плече, знання); 3 - feminine nouns ending in a consonant (ніч, любов, мідь) and the noun мати; 4 - nouns of neuter gender ending in -а, (курча), -я (теля) which have suffixes -ат, -ят, -ен in indirect cases (плем’я).

The category of gender in English is purely semantic (nouns denoting male persons are of masculine gender, female persons – of feminine and the rest of the nouns fall under neuter gender). Ukrainian has morphological gender. Ukrainian gender can be expressed by different language means: (1) zero (дуб, день, час) or positive (сосн -а, дерев -о, мор -е) inflexion in the nominative case; (2) lexico- grammatical suffixes or suffixes + inflexions (робіт -ник, робіт -ниц-я, поет -ес-а); (3) modifying words (молод -ий лікар, молод -а лікар); 4) the inflexion of the finite word (лікар прийш -ов, лікар прийш -ла). In English there are no special inflexions for gender, just a small number of feminine lexico-grammatical suffixes like -ess, -ine, -ette (waitress, heroine, farmerette). Modifying words and finite verbs associated with corresponding nouns remain unchanged (the young actor came/ the young actress came).

The category of case in English is represented by zero inflexion (com. case): positive inflexion ’s/’ (genetive) which is added to a noun in singular (’s) or in plural (’): boy: boy ’s, boys, boys . In Ukrainian there are seven cases, which have different inflexions in singular and in plural depending on the gender, declension and the consonant group of the noun. The cases are: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative.

The noun as a part of speech is characterized in English and Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness". This meaning (thingness) finds its realization not only in concrete nouns (book, boy, house, tree, fish, meat, etc.), but also in abstract nouns (love, hatefulness, business, information, etc.

Common Nouns split in the contrasted languages into the following subclasses: Concrete nouns (arrow, дерево), Abstract nouns (news, сум), Class nouns (cat, кіт), Collective nouns (cattle, гроші), Names of materials (air, сніг).

The morphologically common classes of suffixes and prefixes in the contrasted languages are as follows:

Екзаменаційний білет № 8

Екзаменаційний білет № 12

1. Analyze the morphological category of voice in English and Ukrainian.
The grammatical category of voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject indicating whether the action is performed by the subject or passes on to it. Both English and Ukrainian have two voices: active and passive. The active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the recipient of the action, e. g.: I wrote a letter. A letter was written by me.
The English passive voice is known to be expressed by analytic combinations of the auxiliary verb be with the past participle of the notional verb. Another passive, formed with get as auxiliary and the past participle, seems to be increasing in frequency, though grammarians are at present not agree with its status. The verb get can function in a manner very similar with be, e. g.: He got struck by a stone.
The category of voice is represented by the opposemes like loves/love:: am/is/are loved:: was/were loved, am/is/are loving:: am/is/are being loved, was/were loving:: was/were being loved, have/has loved:: have/has been loved, had loved:: had been loved, ’ll love:: ’ll be loved. In Eng PV is blended with tense, aspect, time correlation.
In Ukrainian the passive voice is expressed by the discontinuous morpheme: бути: Лист (є)/був/буде написаний; корова (є)/була/буде видоєна. Alongside with this, forms in -но/то are used, cf. Лист (є)/був/буде написано/ корову (є)/була/буде видоєно. Ukrainian affixes -сь/ся which are added to the nonperfective verbs express the meaning of continuous aspect and passive voice, cf. Хата будується/будувалась/будуватиметься.
The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb. In Ukrainian only transitive verbs can have passive voice forms. In English, any objective verb, i.e. a verb capable of taking an object, can be passive. In Ukrainian, the subject of a passive sentence can denote the object: e.g. Дім був збудований.

2. Compare the verb word group in English and Ukrainian.

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. Verbal Word-Groups are characterised in English and Ukrainian by some isomorphic and allomorphic features. Generally common in both languages are the structural types of verbal word-groups that may be: 1) with simple objective or adverbial complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements.

Simple unextended word-groups with the transitive verbal head include nominal and adverbial complements/ adjuncts. Their pattern is common in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to like books, to love her, to prefer blue; любити книжки, кохати її, любити синє, etc. The head verb may also be extended or expanded: to ardently love somebody (дуже любити когось), etc.

Common are also prepositional complements in verbal word-groups of this pattern: to speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на двоє). Unlike English, most of Ukrainian complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group: гарно співати - співати гарно.

Extended and expanded complements/adjuncts have mainly common structural patterns in the contr. lang.: to like to play the piano; любити грати на піаніно; to like to read and translate a passage; любити читати й перек.

Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial, infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English verbal word-groups, eg: to wait for Ann to read: to go down to see the boy waiting outside. Similarly in Ukrainian: зайти додому взяти книжку заховану десь.

Predicative Word-Groups. The extensively used in English they are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. The syntactic interdependence between the components student and works remains unchanged when the predicative wg is singled out of the sent.

Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes are represented in English in the following structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes:

The objective with the infinitive: Again he saw Michael moisten his lips. The subjective with the infinitive: Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. The infinitival prepositional: The boy stood aside for me to go by. The objective with the participle: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. The subjective with the participle: He could be seen following her with his eyes. The gerundial constructions/complexes: Hope you don't mind my comings.

Екзаменаційний білет № 13
1. Analyze the grammatical category of perfect in English and means of its rendering in Ukrainian

The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb.
In Ukrainian suffixes can form imperfective verbs from perfective ones: - ува-, -юва-, -овува, -ва, -а: відшукати - відшукувати, скупити - скуповувати, зігріти - зігрівати, оббити – оббивати.

Present-day Ukrainian has also a small group of preffixless verbs which express both perfective and non-perfective meanings that can be formed within the microtext: веліти, вітати, атакувати, женити, телеграфувати, телефонувати: Викладач велів перекласти текст (perf). Живи, як велить тобі Біблія (nonp)

The imperfective (present) дієприкм. is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи; працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи.

Perfective (past) дієприсл. is formed from the infinitival stems with the help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the suffix -вши that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which end in a consonant: донес/ти + -ши — донісши; привез/ти/ + -ши — привізши, ~знавши, пивши, ївши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a vowel, the suffix -вши is added: здола/ти/ + -вши — здолавши; побачи/ти/ + -вши — побачивши. Дієприкм may also be formed from verbs having the postfix -ся/-сь: милуючись.
2. Compare Non-finite forms of the verb in English and Ukrainian

A nonfinite verb is a verb that does not function as the predicate in a clause.They don’t have mood, tense, number, aspect, gender or person.There are three main types of nonfinite verbs: gerunds, infinitives, and participles.

Common are the infinitive and the two participles; divergent are the gerund in English and the diyepryslivnyk in Ukr. The semantic and functional equivalents to the present and past diyepryslivnyks in Ukr are indefinite or perfect participles (active and passive) in Eng performing the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time, cause or attending circumstances. The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both languages, though Ukr participles have gender, number and case distinctions (працююча, працюючий, працюючі, працюючого), which are lost in Eng.
Allomorphism - The English infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier "to" (to come, to be asked, to be doing), whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterised by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, -тися. Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and the participle. The infinitive in Ukrainian has no perfect passive form, no continuous form, no perfect active/passive forms of the Participle that are pertained to present-day English: to have slept, to be sleeping, to have been seen; having been asked/having asked, etc.

The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in English and Ukrainian respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics, the former being those of tense and voice (askingbeing asked, having askedhaving been asked) and the ability of taking an objective complement: I like reading books, as well as the ability of being modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him

 

Екзаменаційний білет № 14

1.Compare the word order in English and Ukrainian sentences

A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought. Word order arranges separate words into sentences in a certain way and indicates where to find the subject, the predicate, and the other parts of the sentence. Word order and context help to identify the meanings of individual words. The main min pattern of basic word order in English declarative sentences is SUBJECT + PREDICATE: Maria works. Time flies. The most common pattern of basic word order in English declarative sentences is SUBJECT + PREDICATE + OBJECT: Tom writes stories. The dog sees the cat. An ordinary declarative sentence containing all five parts of the sentence: "Mike read an interesting story yesterday", has the following word order: The subject is placed at the beginning of the sentence before the predicate; the predicate follows the subject; the object is placed after the predicate; the adverbial modifier is placed after the object (or after the verb if there is no object); the attribute (an adjective) is placed before its noun.

However, Ukrainian is more flexible than English, since the information about the relation between words in a sentence is contained in the endings of nouns, adjectives etc., rather than in the order of the words in a sentence. To provide a translation which sounds natural in English it is necessary to unravel the sentence structure and re-arrange the word order. In spite of the grammatical flexibility of basic sentences, however, word order does have a role to play in conveying stylistic content, including emphasis and approximation.
Changing the word order alters meaning of the sentence. Look at these examples: Я чита́ю кни́гу. - I read a/the book. Я чита́ю кни́гу. (Other intonation) -I read a/the book (It's the book (or some book) what I read). Кни́гу чита́ю я. -I read the book (It’s me who reads the book). Кни́гу я чита́ю. - I read the book (It’s reading what I do with the book). Of course, intonation is more important than word order, but it does play an important role.
In English, when we want to swap the object and the subject, we just move them to the proper place. In Ukrainian, we have to change endings of a noun. So, The book reads me- Мене́ чита́є кни́га. (or Кни́га чита́є мене́. and other variants). The word я turned into мене́, just like Englsh I became me, and the word книгу became книга. As you can see, nouns change only endings and can still be recognized.
2.Contrast the grammatical category of mood in English and Ukrainian
The category of mood
reflects the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view. Both contrasted languages have the system of three moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive. Mood is expressed through the sentence’s verbs and grammatical structure.
The indicative mood denotes the action or the state that corresponds to the actual reality. It is expressed by the forms of present, past and future tenses: • I saw something today that really annoyed me. • Vikings will be the new vampires.
A sentence in the imperative mood renders the order, wish, demand or other types of inducement (спонукання) to perform some action: • Sit on the sofa. • Let me go to bed • Keep reading. The imperative mood in English is expressed synthetically (affirmative: do it!) and analytically (negative: Don’t do it!). English imperative with let (Let me do it! Don’t let us do it! Let him not do it!) has the corresponding Ukrainian forms with the particles нум (singular) and нумо (plural), cf. Нум я зачитаю! Нумо заспівайте!
The subjunctive mood denotes the action which is not revealed in reality and is only desirable or possible under certain circumstances. The present subjunctive is associated with the idea of hopeless, likelihood, while the past subjunctive indicates doubt, unlikelihood: • I fear he may come too late. • I would have bought it if I had had money. English subjunctive forms employ the forms of the past and past perfect and the past of the modal verbs would/should: If I knew that I would change my mind/ If I had known that before I would have changed my mind. The only exception is the specific form of the verb to be (Were she at home I would come over). In Ukrainian subjunctive also employs the forms of the past and perfect and adds the particle би, cf. Якби я знав, я б передума в/Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би прийшов / Була б вона удома, я б прийшов.

Екзаменаційний білет № 15

1. Compare types of subordinate clauses in English and Ukrainian:
A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian contains two or more primary predication centers mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses. But still there are some divergent features.
1. In English causative-resultative relations may be expressed not only by subordination, but by coordination as well: It was not yet daylight, for the candle was burning. She hasn’t much stress in her, so I easily kept her quiet. In Ukrainian this meaning is expressed only by subordinate clauses.
2. Compound coordinate sentences are more spread in Ukrainian. Ukrainian compound sentences with connectives аж, коли, як expressing the meaning of a sudden, unexpected event in English are transformed into subordinate sentences with the meaning of unexpectedness expressed lexically: Іду лісом, аж біжить лисиця. – I was going through the forest when suddenly a fox came running.
3. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
4. Attributive sentences are of two types in both contrasted languagesrestrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive attributive clauses are more tightly connected with the main clause, their elimination leads to the ambiguity of the sentence, e.g.: Where is the book that I gave you yesterday? Де книжка, яку я тобі вчора дав? Non-restrictive attributive clauses can be easily removed without making the main clause semantically incomplete: This was a hit at George, who was notoriously hard up – Це був випад проти Джорджа, який сидів без грошей.
If one of the clauses in a composite sentence governs another one, they are linked subordinately – complex sent. Depending upon the function of a subordinate clause in the whole sentence, clauses fall into: - subject (What was important for him was absolutely necessary for us. Хто чесно бореться, (той) завжди перемагає); predicative (She was as if frightened to death. Вона не така, щоб нічого не робити по дому); object (He knew that she was faithful to him. Я хотів, щоб у мене було більше вільного часу); attributive (The house, which was built not far from the town, was quite big. Оце та станція, на якій я зійшов минулого разу); adverbial clauses: of place (He is happy to be at home where he can find his true friends. Вони пішли туди, де ми їх не чекали), of time (When you are free, I am always busy. Я чекав на них, доки не пішов дощ), manner (She cried as she was asked. Вітер замутив воду, аж осока зашуміла), comparison (He looked as if he had been caught in a trap. Вона виглядає так, начебто вона отримала двійку), condition (If you ask me, I’ll tell you all about this case. Якби все було добре, вона не поїхала б додому), concession (She was happy, though we all knew her fault. Хоча вона й була сердитою, ми добре провели час), purpose (I do it, so that you may be pleased. Ми зателефонуємо йому, щоб він не гаяв час), cause (I am sorry, because you have failed to amuse me. Я розсердився, тому що ви не виконали свої обіцянки), result or consequence (I sat down quickly so that you might be seen by many people. Повітря було настільки прозоре, що я бачив зорі), attendant circumstances (I went down the street, my shoes were creaking) [only in English]. It corresponds to a compound sentence in Ukrainian (Я пішов по вулиці, а мої черевики скрипіли).
Subject clauses initiate a complex sentence with the help of:a) the corresponding/equivalent conjunctions (that, whether, if, because, either...or, whether...or — що, щоб, якщо, тому що, чи, або...або, чи...чи); b) with the help of the corresponding connectives (relative pronouns or adverbs): who, whose, what, which, whom, where, when, how, why — хто, що, який, котрий, чий, де, коли, як/яким чином:What you say is true.Те, що ти кажеш, є правда: Mostly introduced by a pronoun (usually indefinite or relative) or by a noun specified by an attributive clause: All I want's to die in my own place. Єдине, чого я бажаю,- померти у себе вдома
Predicative Clauses always follow in English their matrix clause whereas in Ukrainian they may sometimes occupy a front position and even a midposition in the complex sentence; they may be introduced mainly by common semantically and structurally conjunctions, correlatives and connectives (relative pronouns, relative adverbs): that, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, either...or, whether...or; who, whose, whoever, what, which, where, whenever, when, how, why — що/щоб, як, ніби/нібито, наче/ неначе, мов/немов, такий, кого, яким та ін.
A peculiar feature of English predicative clauses is that they almost always follow the linking verb of the matrix clause: "That's what he did ". My experience is that they're mostly pleasant.
Object Clauses are introduced in the contrasted languages by two common means: a) syndetically and b) asyndetically. The syndetic means are conjunctions (that, if, whether, lest), correlatives (either, or, whether... or), connective pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), and connective adverbs (where, when, whenever, why, how). Their corresponding syndetic means in Ukrainian are respectively subordinating conjunctions and pronominal correlatives що, щоб, чи; чи...чи; хто, котрий, який; де, коли, звідки, куди, чого, чому, як.
English object clauses, however, are more often introduced asyndetically. To mark this way of connection the semicolon, a comma, or a dash is used in Ukrainian instead of the conjunction "що", eg: I realised he wanted to talk. Я зрозумів: йому хотілося побалакати. Lena said she would rest. Ліна казала - вона спочиватиме.
2. Contrast the grammatical category of tense of English and Ukrainian verbs.
The category of tenseis realised both synthetically and analytically in bothcontrasted languages. It
shows the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. There are three tenses both in English and Ukrainian: present, past and future. In English the category of tense is represented by a system of three member opposemes such as works/work:: worked :: ’ ll work; am/is/are working:: was/were working :: ’ ll be working; has worked:: had worked :: ’ ll have worked. In English tense is blended with aspect and time correlation and is expressed synthetically (present/past simple, affirmative) and analytically (present/past simple negative and interrogative; future simple; present/past future continuous/ perfect/ perfect continuous).
In Ukrainian, with the exception of non-perfective future, which is rendered analytically, the category of tense is expressed synthetically: by a system of inflexions, different for the 1st, 2nd and 3d person and singular/plural number in the present and perfective future, and for the singular (masculine, feminine and neuter gender) and plural number in the past: нес-у/ -еш/-е/-емо/ нес-ете/ нес- уть; ніс/несл- а/несл-о:: нес-тиме/ при-несе/буде нести.

Екзаменаційний білет № 16

1. Compare the coordinate word groups in English and Ukrainian

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into three types: 1) co-ordinate 2) subordinate 3) predicative.
Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement): books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати.
Such word-groups in both contrasted lang perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence: Не was clean, handsome, well-dressed, and sympathetic. Він був чистий, гарний, прекрасно одягнений і симпатичний.
According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only: he and she, read and translate. Enlarged word-groups consist of structurally complicated components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it — читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично і перекладати його.
As to the expression of sense, co-ordinate word-groups in the contrasted languages may be closed or unclosed, i. e. infinite. Closed word-groups denote some actions, objects and phenomena. They consist of two components only: rivers and lakes, neither he nor she, all but me — річки й озера; ні він, ні вона; всі крім мене.
Common in both languages are also the unclosed or infinite word-groups consisting of several constituent components the number of which may still be continued. These constituents may be connected by means of conjunctions or asyndetically: books, note-books, bags, pens and pencils; ні гори, ні гірські потоки, ні звірі чи птахи, ні рослини (не цікавили їх). A common means of expressing homogeneousness as well as forming co-ordinate word-groups in both languages is also intonation: He speaks /English, /German, /French, /Spanish and \Russian. /Явором, /канупером, /чебрецем, /м'ятою, /любистком запахло \літо.
2. Contrast communicative types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.
According to the role in the performance of communication and due to the modality/intention expressed, all sentences in the contrasted languages fall into the following five common semantic types: 1) declarative sent. (statements) (розп); 2) interrogative (пит); 3) imperative and inducive sent. (наказові та спонукальні); 4) sentences of hypothetic modality; 5) exclamatory sent. (вигукові). Interrogative sentences include some common paradigmatic classes which may be in English and Ukrainian either affirmative or negative (General, Disjunctive – Диз’юнктивні, Alternative - Альтернативні, Special, Rhetorical - Риторичні, Suggestive - Сугестивні).
Consequently, the communicative types of sentences and their paradigmatic classes are absolutely isomorphic in English and Ukrainian (there still exist some minor structural divergences)
Declarative sentences (the affirmative and the negative statements) may be in English and Ukrainian of real (Thank you again very much), wishful (It's time we got out) or conditional modality
Allomorphism is observed in English negative statements with the negative pronouns and negative adverbs no, nobody, nothing, nowhere, never, etc. which have double negation in Ukrainian where it is formed by the negative pronoun or negative adverb and the negative particle не, eg:
Не було видно жодного собаки. Я і справді нічого не знаю... But really I know nothing... (Doyle) I never had such a wonderful holiday... (Cusack)
A. General Questions in English mostly open with an auxiliary, modal or linking verb followed by the subject. Ukrainian general questions may open with any part of the sentence. Rather often Ukrainian general questions also open with a particle: " Did you do it?" (Saroyan) To, може, ти це зробив? Note. To express inquiry, suggestion or uncertainty, general questions may open in colloquial English with the finite verb or with the subject of the sentence (as in Ukrainian): "Got a cigarette, Root?" "Hear anything?" "Scared of the dark, kid?"
B. Disjunctive/Tag-Questions have in English and Ukrainian semantic and structural equivalents as well. Structural identity is observed in disjunctive questions consisting of an affirmative or negative statement followed by a negative and/or affirmative question tag. "You're not afraid, are you?" "Ти ж не боїшся, так?/ правда?/ Allomorphism is observed, however, in the ability of some Ukrainian tag-questions to be transformed into general questions: "You are all right, aren't you?" "У тебе все гаразд, чи не так? or Правда ж, у тебе все гаразд?"
C. Alternative Questions are characterised in both contrasted languages by absolutely isomorphic features only: the existence of a semantically and structurally common alternative conjunction or corresponding to the Ukrainian чи. The introductory part in these sentences coincides in both languages and may be either a general question or a special question by its structure. Is he married or single? (Sheridan) Він одружений чи ще ні?
D. Special/Pronominal Questions are characterised in the contrasted languages by generally common features. They open with an interrogative pronoun or adverb which may sometimes be preceded by prepositions, particles or interjections. For example: Who said so? What did you say? And what is it? These sentences have absolute structural equivalents in Ukrainian: Хто це так сказав? Що ти сказав? А що це таке? Allomorphic is only the often use of prepositions in the closing position of the special question in English: Where do you come from?
Sentences of Hypothetic Modality Isomorphic is the expression by means of predicative parts or through the inserted notional words/phrases which are either modal words/phrases or predicates that include notional and modal verbs or their lexical equivalents: Perhaps he was really not so young as he looked. Може, він і справді не був таким молодим, як із вигляду. The expression of hypothetic modality through modal words is therefore identical in both languages. In Ukrainian it is mostly the predominant expression of hypothetic modality through the modal particles б/би, десь, ледве, ніби, наче, либонь, чи не,, навряд чи and some others. For example:
"Навряд чи й двоє з ним справились би ". "Even both of them would have hardly managed to overpower him.
F. Rhetorical Questions have a modal meaning which does not contain any new information for the speaker. Structurally interrogative by form, these questions contain a negative or an affirmative statement with a respective implicit answer. Rhetorical questions realise structurally a statement and a question simultaneously. Cf.: Can the leopard change his spots? or: Хіба горбатого могила виправить? А кого це кортить?
Sentences of Incentive Modality / спонукальної модальності. Incentive modality originates in English and Ukrainian from optative modality and may have the meaning of incentiveness proper or it may express wishful incentiveness. Hence, the two different structural types of sentences to express these varieties of incentiveness:
Imperative sentences in which the main incentive meaning constitutes a categorial demand which is expressed through the imperative mood forms of verbs denoting order, command, request, warning, prohibition, persuasion, etc. The incentive meaning of this type is realised through a) one-member sentences, eg: Silence! Stop talking! b) two-member sentences, eg: Vanish the dream! Згинь, ця думко!
Incentive modality may also be expressed in exclamatory sentences through the meaning of the auxiliary verb "let" and in Ukrainian by the particles нум or нумо. Cf. "Let me go and see him alone." Хай / Нум я сам зайду до нього. Let George do it. Хай/Нехай хтось інший робить це.

Екзаменаційний білет № 18

1. Compare functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian
Prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles
. The distinctive features of functional parts of speech: 1) weak lexical meaning; 2) obligatory combinability; 3) the function of linking and specifying words.

The Article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions. It exists only in English. The Preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of substantive referents. They are simple (at, in, of, на, при, без); compound (into, without, із-зі, попід, проміж); derivative (along, below, внаслідок, завдяки); composite (by means of, owing to, незалежно від, згідно з). In Ukrainian certain simple prep. consist of a single sound (в, у, з).

The Conjunction expresses connections of phenomena. They are simple (and, but, та, і); compound (although, unless, або, проте, якщо); composite (as if, as soon as, для того, щоб, з того часу, як). Functionally they are subdivided into copulative (and, as well as, як... так і, також); disjunctive (either or, чи, або... або); adversative (but, still, yet, все ж, але); resultative (so, hence, так що, тобто); a causal conjunction for is pertaining only to English (A do it for you to get pleasure). Semantically they are grouped into conjunctions of time (since, поки, доки); place (wherever, де); cause \ reason (as, because, оскільки, бо); condition (if, unless, якби, аби); purpose (lest, that, щоб); result (so that, that, так що); concession (though, even if, хоч, хай); comparison (as if, мовби, неначе).

The Particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning: absolutely, here, just, never, else, also, саме, точно, тільки, лише, хіба, просто, ось. The Interjection, occupying a detached position in the sentence, is a signal of emotions or greetings, may be onomatopoeic or imperative: great, hey, oops, hush, hi, bang, чудово, геть, прошу, дінь, хлюп, сюди, ух, о: simple (ah, ох); compound (yo-ho, спасибі); composite (nuts, жах).
Most of these functionals, except the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or, чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As to the number of functionals in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English), сполучники, прийменники, мод.слова та вирази.

Екзаменаційний білет № 19

1. Compare the main kinds of syntagmatic connection in English and Ukrainian
The elements of word-groups can be joined either Syndetically by means of prepositions or conjunctions (books for reading, читати по черзі) or Asyndetically by means of intonation (easy-reading books, писати швидко). English has a greater asyndetic potential if compared with Ukrainian because of its analytical character.
Syntagmatic groupings:
- syntagmatic groupings of notional words alone (interesting book, цікава книга); - syntagmatic groupings of notional words with functionals (to get rid of sth, зважати на щось)- syntagmatic groupings of functional words alone (up to, тому що).
Syntactic connection is realized in 3 types: subordination, coordination, predication.
Coordination – (the components are equal in rank: young and beautiful; мати, батько, сестра). Subordination – is a type of syntactic connection where one element is a dominant and the second is subordinated to it. It is realized in three types of syntactic relations between the head word and the subordinate one: 1. Agreement – a way of expressing a syntactic relationship which consists of making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the head word (this book-these books, велике щастя). 2. Government – a way that implies a certain change of the subordinate word required by the head word, but not similar to the form of the head word itself: (to be fond of smth, читаю роман). 3. Adjoining – a type of syntactic relations when elements make a syntactic group without changing their forms (to go quickly, можливість аналізувати). 4. Enclosure (замыкание) – some element of a phrase is enclosed between two parts of another element, for example, by putting of a word between an article and the noun to which the article belongs: (the then government). Objective sub. Ph. (ask a question, намалювати картину) and qualifying sub. Ph.: attributive (awesome dress, печальна пісня) and adverbial (extremely difficult, пізно йти).
Predication – a specific type of syntactic connection characteristic of the relations between the subject and the predicate. Primary predicative phrases (those that comprise the subject and the predicate) are of isomorphic nature: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. Secondary predicative phrases: Complex object with the infinitive (I heard him roll in blankets), Complex subject with the infinitive (He is reported to have been taken into custody), For- complex (The boy stood aside for me to go by), Complex object with the participle (I saw her coming), Complex subject with the participle (The rain was heard clattering.), Absolute participle construction (This being so, I should like to go out.), Gerundial complex (Excuse my being late.).
In English 24% of word-groups are joined by means of agreement, whereas in Ukrainian – 53%. In English 39% of word-groups have government and in Ukrainian – 32%. Adjoinment is spread in English (37%), whereas in Ukrainian they present a minority – 15%.
The links between the elements of a word-group:
- predicative unites the subject and the predicate,(ми читаємо) building up the basis of a sentence;
- o bjectiv e connections: see a book, малювати картину;
- attributive unites a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective: puny creature, цікава новина);
- a dverbial is subdivided into primary and secondary.The primary adverbial connections is established between the verb and its adv. modifiers of various standings(to talk seriously,говорити голосно, йти з радістю). The secondary adverbial connection is established between the non-verbal kernel expressing a quality and its adverbial modifiers of various standings (wonderfully interesting, very much at ease, дуже весело).
2. Contrast the predicative word groups in English and Ukrainian.
The extensively used in English they are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. The syntactic interdependence between the components student and works remains unchanged when the predicative wg is singled out of the sent.
Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes are represented in English in the following structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes: The objective with the infinitive: Again he saw Michael moisten his lips. The subjective with the infinitive: Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. The infinitival prepositional: The boy stood aside for me to go by. The objective with the participle: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. The subjective with the participle: He could be seen following her with his eyes. The gerundial constructions/complexes: Hope you don't mind my comings.

Екзаменаційний білет № 20
1. Compare the main groups of English and Ukrainian verbs
The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs (go, ask, write; іти, запитувати, писати) and b) auxiliary verbs that split into primary (be, do, have; бути, мати), modal (can, may, must, could, should, need; могти, мусити, сміти, мати, etc.) and linking verbs (дієслова-звязки) (appear, look, become turn grow; ставати, здаватися).
English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian: regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending, -ed, -d or -t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent); 2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin -began - begun). Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle -d or -t ending (tell - told - told, keep -kept - kept, think - thought - thought). There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show — showed - shown, crowcrew — crowed). A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast - cast - cast, cost - cost - cost, let - let - let, put - put - put, etc. They are not available in Ukrainian, thought suppletive verbs are common: be - was - were, go - went; бути - є, іти -пішов, пішла, брати - взяв, узяли). As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into:
1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive): to act, to go, to sleep, to glisten (діяти, йти, спати, блищати.
2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to take, to envy (брати, давати, заздрити and others).
3. Terminative verbs expressing action having final aims (to close, to open, to come, to find; зачиняти, приходити, заходити). 4. Durative verbs expressing action with no final aim: to like, to love, to hate, to hope, to work (подобатись, любити, ненавидіти). 5. Mixed-type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to stand, to know, to remember (сидіти, стояти, знати, пам'ятати).6. Reflexive verbs, which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself, myself, himself, ourselves: to wash oneself, to shave himself; to see herself in the mirror, etc. Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian correspond to forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися, голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.). Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages:
1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися, змагатися, вітатися, листуватись, цілуватись. 2. Indirectly reflexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися, збиратися (в похід), лаштуватися (в дорогу). 3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні: милуватися, дивуватися, злитися, журитися, мучитися. 4. Active-objectless reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака кусається), дряпатися (кішка дряпається), жалитися (кропива жалиться), колотися (стерня колеться). 5. Passively-qualitative reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися, ламатися, м'ятися, колотися (дерево гарно колеться), кривитися (залізо гнеться, скло б'ється, дитина кривиться). 6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не спиться, не їсться, погано/гарно живеться, не лежиться.
Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups: 1. Modal verbs serve to connect the subject of the sentence with the part of the verbal compound predicate. They include can/могти, may/могти, should/слід/треба, ought to/слід, have to/мати, be to/мати бути, dare/сміти, need/потребувати; would/ shall/will do not have Ukrainian modal equivalents.
2. Link verbs divide into three groups:
1) Link verbs of being, cf. be/ бути/доводитися, feel/ бути на дотик, look/ бути на вигляд, seem/ здаватися, taste/ бути на смак, smell/ бути на запах. In Ukrainian there are also вважатися, доводитися, зватися, cf. Це вважається/зветься правдою.
2) Link verbs of becoming, cf. get/ become / ставати, turn /робитися,ставати. English link verbs of beсoming can be substituted in Ukrainian by notion verbs (They grew stronger = Вони стали міцнішими; The wood turned red =Ліс зробився рудим; But: She grew older = Вона постаріла; He became grey = Він посивів).
3) Link verbs of remaining, cf. remain/залишатися, keep/стояти, stay/залишатися, continue/залишатися, сf. The weather kept obstinately hot and dry/Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою; He remained/stayed silent/Він залишався мовчазним.
Besides link verbs and modal verbs there exists a group of analytical word morpheme s also called auxiliary verbs: be, do, have, shall/will/should/would which correspond to one Ukrainian verb бути.
2. Contrast the complex sentence in English and Ukrainian.
Complex sentences present an isomorphic type in the system of composite sentences of the contrasted languages. These sentences consist of two or more complex sentences preceding and following the co-ordinate conjunction. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sent







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