Compare the Noun word-group in English and Ukrainian.

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. Substantival Word-Groups, in which the mainly attributive adjuncts may be in pre-position or in postposition to the noun head. Their way of connection is analytical in English and synthetic in Ukrainian, but with exceptions: last week football matches, період розпаду ядер урану, cotton yarn, гра оркестру.
There are noun word-groups with synthetic or analytical-synthetic connection in English as well (when the complement/adjunct is a pronoun in the objective case, eg: books for them, or when the adjunct is the demonstrative pronoun this/that, these/those, such a/such (this day — these days, such a book — such books).

The combinability of the noun as head of the substantival word-group is practically isomorphic in the contrasted languages. The only exceptions form a) the NprepVger pattern (books for reading), b) the N<Stative pattern which is of attributive nature (the child ashamed) and of predicative type in Ukrainian (дитині страшно, жах бере) but not attributive as in English (the boy asleep); c) The English language has no I < Stative pattern word-groups like йому страшно, нам сором(но), etc. which present an allomorphic feature for the English language.

Note. Pertaining to English only are also substantival word-groups with adjuncts expressed by the definite or indefinite articles, which acquire a lexical meaning in a syntaxeme, i.e. in the context. For example, in such sentences as: Не hadn't a penny.Він не мав жодного пенні.

Екзаменаційний білет № 9

1. Compare Parts of Speech in Ukrainian to Word Classes in English.
The identification of the parts of speech in the contrasted languages is not always an easy matter though the main subdivision of words into notionals and functionals seems to be indisputable. The ambiguity of form and meaning of many English notional words, however, brought some grammarians to the assumption that there exist no proper grounds and justification for singling out some notional parts of speech in present-day English.
C. Fries suggested a purely functional approach to the classification of English words. He singled out class 1 words (those performing the function of the subject), class 2 words (those performing the function of the predicate), class 3 words (adjectivals), i. e. attributives, and class 4 are adverbial function words or word-groups. C. Fries tried to avoid even mentioning the usual term of "parts of speech". The term is also avoided by this grammarian in his classification of "function words", which are allotted to 15 different groups and include also some pron, adv and verb.
A typologically more relevant classification has been suggested for English notionals by C. T. Hockett who distinguishes in English "parts of speech" and "classes of words". Among the notionals three pure "classes of words" (or regular parts of speech) are distinguished: "class N words", "class V words" and "class A words". Hence, the grammarian singled out apart from the N, A, V classes of words some double and triple wordstem classes.
The variability of some English notionals, which can often shift from one part of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form/structure is certainly the main allomorphic difference pertaining to the nature of some notional words as compared to the corresponding classes of words in Ukrainian. It becomes especially evident when dealing with the conglomerates like NV, AN, ND, NVA and the like, which are in reality no regular parts of speech but one-lexeme units able to realise different functional meanings depending on the place occupied in a sen.
There is no doubt concerning the status and the set to which, for example, different proper nouns like Ann, Peter, Sam, etc. should be allotted. Neither can there be any doubt in the substantival nature of words denoting specific national notions (Miss, sir) or internationalisms (actress, emperor, computer, phoneme) and many regular class nouns (boy, girl, tree). Neither can there be any denying the fact that words like "do, hear, listen, read, write", etc. can be allotted at first sight by every English language speaker to verbs, since they express action, whereas words like "happy, new, older " are recognised as qualifiers of nouns, i. e. adjectives, and words like "slowly, quickly, unanimously" will be unerringly taken for qualifiers of actions, i. e. adverbs. Easily enough, already at language level, are identified pronouns (he, she, we, they, who), numerals (ten, the first, the tenth), conjunctions (and, or, if, because) and many other words having the same lexico-grammatical nature in English, Ukrainian.
Consequently, apart from the semantically and morphologically indistinct conglomerates / "word classes"/ like AN, NVA, VN, etc. having no definite differentiation at language level, there also exist in English a bulk of words whose lexico-grammatical nature as a part of speech is quite evident and indisputable. Most of these functionals, except the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian. For example: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As a result, these and a number of other functionals in English and Ukrainian are typologically relevant, i. e. isomorphic, in other words common.
Some parts of speech both among the notionals and among the semi-notionals/functionals are still disputable in the contrasted languages. On the ground of identical or similar semantic, morphological/formal and syntactic/functional properties pertaining to common lexico-grammatical classes of words, the number of notional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian may be considered (from the typological point of view) all in all the same - seven. Namely: noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, stative.
As to the functionals their number in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English).
2. Analyze types of word-groups in English and Ukrainian.
The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into three types: 1) co-ordinate 2) subordinate 3) predicative.
I. Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement): books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, читати, перекладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се.
According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only, eg: he and she, read and translate, він і вона, читати й перекладати. Enlarged co-ordinate word-groups consist of structurally complicated components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it
II. Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one or more adjuncts/complements. eg: my pen, his "oh", take part in the games, Peter's brother, etc. There are 7 (according to the number of national parts of speech) common classes of substantival word-groups are to be singled out in English and Ukrainian:
1. Substantival Word-Groups, in which the mainly attributive adjuncts may be in pre-position or in postposition to the noun head. Their way of connection is analytical in English and synthetic in Ukrainian. The combinability of the noun as head of the substantival word-group is practically isomorphic in the contrasted languages.
2. Verbal Word-Groups are characterised in English and Ukrainian by some isomorphic and allomorphic features. Generally common in both languages are the structural types of verbal word-groups that may be: 1) with simple objective or adverbial complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements.

Simple unextended word-groups with the transitive verbal head include nominal and adverbial complements/ adjuncts. Their pattern is common in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to like books, to love her, to prefer blue; любити книжки, кохати її, любити синє, etc. The head verb may also be extended or expanded: to ardently love somebody (дуже любити когось), etc.

Common are also prepositional complements in verbal word-groups of this pattern: to speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на двоє). Unlike English, most of Ukrainian complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group: гарно співати - співати гарно.

Extended and expanded complements/adjuncts have mainly common structural patterns in the contr. lang.: to like to play the piano; любити грати на піаніно; to like to read and translate a passage; любити читати й перек.

Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial, infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English verbal word-groups, eg: to wait for Ann to read: to go down to see the boy waiting outside. Similarly in Ukrainian: зайти додому взяти книжку заховану десь.

3. Adjectival Word-Groups. The most productive and usual in English and Ukrainian are simple and extended models with different dependent components. (glad to hear) Allomorphic are (pertaining to English) only adjectival word-groups with gerundial complements: worth reading; proud of his having been invited. Ukrainian adjectival word-groups for example, have the free location of most of adjectival and complements adjuncts which is absolutely impossible in English. Cf. дуже добра — добра дуже; радий чути — чути радий; Ukrainian head adjectives, however, express the morphological categories of number, case and gender which is impossible in English. Cf. гарний зовні, гарна зовні, гарні зовні; гарної/гарній зовні, гарною зовні.

4. Pronominal Word-Groups. Most often the heads are indefinite, negative and mostly demonstrative pronouns, and much rarer personal and reflexive pronouns. Cf. we all, ми всі — нас усіх — нам усім — нами всіма. The allomorphic feature of Ukrainian pronominal word-groups is their considerably free position within the pattern which is never possible in English: щось нове — нове щось, нічого казати — казати нічого.

5. Numerical word-groups. This morphological class of word-groups has the following combinability with other parts of speech: Q<N(I) - _ - багато часу, кілька їх; Q_cardprepN(P) - two of such birds - з того класу; QordVinf - the first to come - перший співати; O_prepN(subcl.) - ten of the girls who were absent - двоє з робітників, що не були присутні. Only one of them is missing in English - that one which is presented in Ukrainian by the model (багато часу, мало нас), etc., since much or many are not numerals in English. One more characteristic feature of most Ukrainian numerical word-groups (except those with the subclauses) is their considerably free change of place of the ICs, which is impossible in English word-groups of the same structural models.

6. Adverbial Word-Groups in both contrasted languages can be headed by adverbs or by adverbial phrases: D>D -

terribly well - страшно добре; N>D - hours later - годиною пізніше; Dprep IP - far from all that/this - далеко від усього цього; Dco-conj D - so and so - скрізь і всюди. Allomorphism can be observed only in the placement of some Ukrainian components which can be free in Ukrainian as in далеко звідси - звідси далеко.

7. Statival Word-Groups rarely correlate in the contrasted languages semantically and structurally. This is because English statives have few direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian and vice versa. Moreover, Ukrainian statives are often identified only at the syntactic level, since the same word may be in one word-group or sentence an adverb and in another — a stative: Надворі вже краще (adverb). Йому вже краще (stative). Gerundial complements pertain only to English statival word-groups (cf. afraid of being sent away). The placement of Ukrainian statives in such word-groups is generally free: йому добре тут — тут йому добре — добре йому тут.

III. Predicative Word-Groups. The extensively used in English they are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. The syntactic interdependence between the components student and works remains unchanged when the predicative wg is singled out of the sent.

Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes are represented in English in the following structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes:

The objective with the infinitive: Again he saw Michael moisten his lips. The subjective with the infinitive: Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. The infinitival prepositional: The boy stood aside for me to go by. The objective with the participle: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. The subjective with the participle: He could be seen following her with his eyes. The gerundial constructions/complexes: Hope you don't mind my comings.

Екзаменаційний білет № 10
1. Analyze the morphological category of tense in English and Ukrainian.

The definite personal sentences. The doer of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb, eg: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю. Любіть (ви / всі) Україну всім серцем своїм…

The indefinite personal sentences in which their main part, i. e., the verbal component, correlates with the finite verb in the third person plural. Its action may refer to the present, past of future in the indicative, imperative or in the subjunctive mood, eg: Сіяли всю ніч. Дзвонять в усі дзвони. Давніх друзів не забувають.

The generalized personal sentences are similar to definite personal sentences. The action of their main part refers to any person correlating with the second person in singular or plural of the indicative or imperative mood, eg: За правду й за народ ставай життям! Дивиться лисицею, а думає вовком! Поживемо – побачимо!

Impersonal sentences: Остапові не спалось. Роботу покинуто. Неможливо знищити.

The allomorphic one-member sentences are:

A. Imperative (inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP structure: Keep aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on!– Не підходь, не підходь! Проходьте, проходьте!

B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally coincide in English and Ukrainian with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! Damn your money Злодії! Вогонь! Як гарно! К бісу твої гроші!

С. Infinitival sentences in the contrasted languages have practically identical structural forms: To be or not to be? To be alive! Бути чи не бути? Бути живим!

D. Elliptical sentence is a shorter form of sentence which some words have been omitted, but it retains the same meaning. It is used so that we can avoid unnecessary repeated words. (Taking risks? Подумав?).

E. Nominative (Night. Measure for Measure. Темнота та тиша. Чудовий сон!);

Екзаменаційний білет № 11
1. Analyze the morphological category of aspect in English and Ukrainian
The category of aspect is a system of two member opposemes in the English language such as works – is working, has worked – has been working, to work – to be working showing the character of the action, that is whether the action is taken in its progress, in its development (continuous aspect) or it is simply stated, its nature being unspecified (non-continuous aspect).In Ukrainian it is also a system of two member opposemes represented by the verbs of perfective and imperfective aspects. Verbs having similar lexical meanings often create aspect pairs (видові пари: писати – надписати, читати – прочитати).
Aspect in English is blended with tense (present/past/future simple:: present/past/future continuous) and time correlation (present/past/future continuous:: present/past/future perfect continuous). In Ukrainian there is no morphological category of aspect. The meaning of continuous aspect blended with that of passive voice and is expressed by lexico- grammatical means, i.e. the transitive verb stems with the suffixes -сь/ся and a corresponding adverb identifying the moment of action, cf. Школа зараз/ще/вже/давно будуєть ся. Школа ще будувалась/ будуватиметь ся.
The English continuous aspect is “narrower” by the power of its expression than the Ukrainian imperfective aspect. It is caused by the fact that forms of the continuous aspect in English do not only stress the process of action but also bring attention towards its concrete character, its visual expression (наочність), demonstrativeness, and present this action in the way as if it is happening before the speaker’s eyes. In its turn in Ukrainian the imperfective aspect points only towards the process of the action development, not singling out separately the meaning of concreteness. Depending on the context the Ukrainian imperfective aspect can express either the concrete action, happening at the moment of speaking, or the action of a more general and abstract character.
Aspect is expressed by means of to be+ V-ing in English and by the stem of the verb of Ukrainian: Prefixation: писати – розписати; Suffixation: нагадувати – нагадати; Vowel alteration: вмирати- вимерти; Stress shifting: розкид’ати – розк’идати; Use of different stems: брати – взяти.
2. Compare the word order in English and Ukrainian
A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought. Word order arranges separate words into sentences in a certain way and indicates where to find the subject, the predicate, and the other parts of the sentence. Word order and context help to identify the meanings of individual words. The main min pattern of basic word order in English declarative sentences is SUBJECT + PREDICATE: Maria works. Time flies. The most common pattern of basic word order in English declarative sentences is SUBJECT + PREDICATE + OBJECT: Tom writes stories. The dog sees the cat. An ordinary declarative sentence containing all five parts of the sentence: "Mike read an interesting story yesterday", has the following word order: The subject is placed at the beginning of the sentence before the predicate; the predicate follows the subject; the object is placed after the predicate; the adverbial modifier is placed after the object (or after the verb if there is no object); the attribute (an adjective) is placed before its noun.

However, Ukrainian is more flexible than English, since the information about the relation between words in a sentence is contained in the endings of nouns, adjectives etc., rather than in the order of the words in a sentence. To provide a translation which sounds natural in English it is necessary to unravel the sentence structure and re-arrange the word order. In spite of the grammatical flexibility of basic sentences, however, word order does have a role to play in conveying stylistic content, including emphasis and approximation.
Changing the word order alters meaning of the sentence. Look at these examples: Я чита́ю кни́гу. - I read a/the book. Я чита́ю кни́гу. (Other intonation) -I read a/the book (It's the book (or some book) what I read). Кни́гу чита́ю я. -I read the book (It’s me who reads the book). Кни́гу я чита́ю. - I read the book (It’s reading what I do with the book). Of course, intonation is more important than word order, but it does play an important role.
In English, when we want to swap the object and the subject, we just move them to the proper place. In Ukrainian, we have to change endings of a noun. So, The book reads me- Мене́ чита́є кни́га. (or Кни́га чита́є мене́. and other variants). The word я turned into мене́, just like Englsh I became me, and the word книгу became книга. As you can see, nouns change only endings and can still be recognized.

Екзаменаційний білет № 12

1. Analyze the morphological category of voice in English and Ukrainian.
The grammatical category of voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject indicating whether the action is performed by the subject or passes on to it. Both English and Ukrainian have two voices: active and passive. The active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the recipient of the action, e. g.: I wrote a letter. A letter was written by me.
The English passive voice is known to be expressed by analytic combinations of the auxiliary verb be with the past participle of the notional verb. Another passive, formed with get as auxiliary and the past participle, seems to be increasing in frequency, though grammarians are at present not agree with its status. The verb get can function in a manner very similar with be, e. g.: He got struck by a stone.
The category of voice is represented by the opposemes like loves/love:: am/is/are loved:: was/were loved, am/is/are loving:: am/is/are being loved, was/were loving:: was/were being loved, have/has loved:: have/has been loved, had loved:: had been loved, ’ll love:: ’ll be loved. In Eng PV is blended with tense, aspect, time correlation.
In Ukrainian the passive voice is expressed by the discontinuous morpheme: бути: Лист (є)/був/буде написаний; корова (є)/була/буде видоєна. Alongside with this, forms in -но/то are used, cf. Лист (є)/був/буде написано/ корову (є)/була/буде видоєно. Ukrainian affixes -сь/ся which are added to the nonperfective verbs express the meaning of continuous aspect and passive voice, cf. Хата будується/будувалась/будуватиметься.
The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb. In Ukrainian only transitive verbs can have passive voice forms. In English, any objective verb, i.e. a verb capable of taking an object, can be passive. In Ukrainian, the subject of a passive sentence can denote the object: e.g. Дім був збудований.

2. Compare the verb word group in English and Ukrainian.

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. Verbal Word-Groups are characterised in English and Ukrainian by some isomorphic and allomorphic features. Generally common in both languages are the structural types of verbal word-groups that may be: 1) with simple objective or adverbial complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements.

Simple unextended word-groups with the transitive verbal head include nominal and adverbial complements/ adjuncts. Their pattern is common in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to like books, to love her, to prefer blue; любити книжки, кохати її, любити синє, etc. The head verb may also be extended or expanded: to ardently love somebody (дуже любити когось), etc.

Common are also prepositional complements in verbal word-groups of this pattern: to speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на двоє). Unlike English, most of Ukrainian complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group: гарно співати - співати гарно.

Extended and expanded complements/adjuncts have mainly common structural patterns in the contr. lang.: to like to play the piano; любити грати на піаніно; to like to read and translate a passage; любити читати й перек.

Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial, infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English verbal word-groups, eg: to wait for Ann to read: to go down to see the boy waiting outside. Similarly in Ukrainian: зайти додому взяти книжку заховану десь.

Predicative Word-Groups. The extensively used in English they are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. The syntactic interdependence between the components student and works remains unchanged when the predicative wg is singled out of the sent.

Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes are represented in English in the following structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes:

The objective with the infinitive: Again he saw Michael moisten his lips. The subjective with the infinitive: Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. The infinitival prepositional: The boy stood aside for me to go by. The objective with the participle: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. The subjective with the participle: He could be seen following her with his eyes. The gerundial constructions/complexes: Hope you don't mind my comings.

Екзаменаційний білет № 13
1. Analyze the grammatical category of perfect in English and means of its rendering in Ukrainian

1. Compare types of subordinate clauses in English and Ukrainian:
A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian contains two or more primary predication centers mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses. But still there are some divergent features.
1. In English causative-resultative relations may be expressed not only by subordination, but by coordination as well: It was not yet daylight, for the candle was burning. She hasn’t much stress in her, so I easily kept her quiet. In Ukrainian this meaning is expressed only by subordinate clauses.
2. Compound coordinate sentences are more spread in Ukrainian. Ukrainian compound sentences with connectives аж, коли, як expressing the meaning of a sudden, unexpected event in English are transformed into subordinate sentences with the meaning of unexpectedness expressed lexically: Іду лісом, аж біжить лисиця. – I was going through the forest when suddenly a fox came running.
3. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
4. Attributive sentences are of two types in both contrasted languages – restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive attributive clauses are more tightly connected with the main clause, their elimination leads to the ambiguity of the sentence, e.g.: Where is the book that I gave you yesterday? Де книжка, яку я тобі вчора дав? Non-restrictive attributive clauses can be easily removed without making the main clause semantically incomplete: This was a hit at George, who was notoriously hard up – Це був випад проти Джорджа, який сидів без грошей.
If one of the clauses in a composite sentence governs another one, they are linked subordinately – complex sent. Depending upon the function of a subordinate clause in the whole sentence, clauses fall into: - subject (What was important for him was absolutely necessary for us. Хто чесно бореться, (той) завжди перемагає); predicative (She was as if frightened to death. Вона не така, щоб нічого не робити по дому); object (He knew that she was faithful to him. Я хотів, щоб у мене було більше вільного часу); attributive (The house, which was built not far from the town, was quite big. Оце та станція, на якій я зійшов минулого разу); adverbial clauses: of place (He is happy to be at home where he can find his true friends. Вони пішли туди, де ми їх не чекали), of time (When you are free, I am always busy. Я чекав на них, доки не пішов дощ), manner (She cried as she was asked. Вітер замутив воду, аж осока зашуміла), comparison (He looked as if he had been caught in a trap. Вона виглядає так, начебто вона отримала двійку), condition (If you ask me, I’ll tell you all about this case. Якби все було добре, вона не поїхала б додому), concession (She was happy, though we all knew her fault. Хоча вона й була сердитою, ми добре провели час), purpose (I do it, so that you may be pleased. Ми зателефонуємо йому, щоб він не гаяв час), cause (I am sorry, because you have failed to amuse me. Я розсердився, тому що ви не виконали свої обіцянки), result or consequence (I sat down quickly so that you might be seen by many people. Повітря було настільки прозоре, що я бачив зорі), attendant circumstances (I went down the street, my shoes were creaking) [only in English]. It corresponds to a compound sentence in Ukrainian (Я пішов по вулиці, а мої черевики скрипіли).
Subject clauses initiate a complex sentence with the help of:a) the corresponding/equivalent conjunctions (that, whether, if, because, either...or, whether...or — що, щоб, якщо, тому що, чи, або...або, чи...чи); b) with the help of the corresponding connectives (relative pronouns or adverbs): who, whose, what, which, whom, where, when, how, why — хто, що, який, котрий, чий, де, коли, як/яким чином:What you say is true.Те, що ти кажеш, є правда: Mostly introduced by a pronoun (usually indefinite or relative) or by a noun specified by an attributive clause: All I want's to die in my own place. Єдине, чого я бажаю,- померти у себе вдома
Predicative Clauses always follow in English their matrix clause whereas in Ukrainian they may sometimes occupy a front position and even a midposition in the complex sentence; they may be introduced mainly by common semantically and structurally conjunctions, correlatives and connectives (relative pronouns, relative adverbs): that, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, either...or, whether...or; who, whose, whoever, what, which, where, whenever, when, how, why — що/щоб, як, ніби/нібито, наче/ неначе, мов/немов, такий, кого, яким та ін.
A peculiar feature of English predicative clauses is that they almost always follow the linking verb of the matrix clause: "That's what he did ". My experience is that they're mostly pleasant.
Object Clauses are introduced in the contrasted languages by two common means: a) syndetically and b) asyndetically. The syndetic means are conjunctions (that, if, whether, lest), correlatives (either, or, whether... or), connective pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), and connective adverbs (where, when, whenever, why, how). Their corresponding syndetic means in Ukrainian are respectively subordinating conjunctions and pronominal correlatives що, щоб, чи; чи...чи; хто, котрий, який; де, коли, звідки, куди, чого, чому, як.
English object clauses, however, are more often introduced asyndetically. To mark this way of connection the semicolon, a comma, or a dash is used in Ukrainian instead of the conjunction "що", eg: I realised he wanted to talk. Я зрозумів: йому хотілося побалакати. Lena said she would rest. Ліна казала - вона спочиватиме.
2. Contrast the grammatical category of tense of English and Ukrainian verbs.
The category of tenseis realised both synthetically and analytically in bothcontrasted languages. It shows the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. There are three tenses both in English and Ukrainian: present, past and future. In English the category of tense is represented by a system of three member opposemes such as works/work:: worked :: ’ ll work; am/is/are working:: was/were working :: ’ ll be working; has worked:: had worked :: ’ ll have worked. In English tense is blended with aspect and time correlation and is expressed synthetically (present/past simple, affirmative) and analytically (present/past simple negative and interrogative; future simple; present/past future continuous/ perfect/ perfect continuous).
In Ukrainian, with the exception of non-perfective future, which is rendered analytically, the category of tense is expressed synthetically: by a system of inflexions, different for the 1st, 2nd and 3d person and singular/plural number in the present and perfective future, and for the singular (masculine, feminine and neuter gender) and plural number in the past: нес-у/ -еш/-е/-емо/ нес-ете/ нес- уть; ніс/несл- а/несл-о:: нес-тиме/ при-несе/буде нести.

Екзаменаційний білет № 16

1. Compare the coordinate word groups in English and Ukrainian

The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words, which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected. According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into three types: 1) co-ordinate 2) subordinate 3) predicative.
Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement): books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; книжки й журнали; читати, перекладати й переказувати.
Such word-groups in both contrasted lang perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence: Не was clean, handsome, well-dressed, and sympathetic. Він був чистий, гарний, прекрасно одягнений і симпатичний.
According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only: he and she, read and translate. Enlarged word-groups consist of structurally complicated components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it — читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично і перекладати його.
As to the expression of sense, co-ordinate word-groups in the contrasted languages may be closed or unclosed, i. e. infinite. Closed word-groups denote some actions, objects and phenomena. They consist of two components only: rivers and lakes, neither he nor she, all but me — річки й озера; ні він, ні вона; всі крім мене.
Common in both languages are also the unclosed or infinite word-groups consisting of several constituent components the number of which may still be continued. These constituents may be connected by means of conjunctions or asyndetically: books, note-books, bags, pens and pencils; ні гори, ні гірські потоки, ні звірі чи птахи, ні рослини (не цікавили їх). A common means of expressing homogeneousness as well as forming co-ordinate word-groups in both languages is also intonation: He speaks /English, /German, /French, /Spanish and \Russian. /Явором, /канупером, /чебрецем, /м'ятою, /любистком запахло \літо.
2. Contrast communicative types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.
According to the role in the performance of communication and due to the modality/intention expressed, all sentences in the contrasted languages fall into the following five common semantic types: 1) declarative sent. (statements) (розп); 2) interrogative (пит); 3) imperative and inducive sent. (наказові та спонукальні); 4) sentences of hypothetic modality; 5) exclamatory sent. (вигукові). Interrogative sentences include some common paradigmatic classes which may be in English and Ukrainian either affirmative or negative (General, Disjunctive – Диз’юнктивні, Alternative - Альтернативні, Special, Rhetorical - Риторичні, Suggestive - Сугестивні).
Consequently, the communicative types of sentences and their paradigmatic classes are absolutely isomorphic in English and Ukrainian (there still exist some minor structural divergences)
Declarative sentences (the affirmative and the negative statements) may be in English and Ukrainian of real (Thank you again very much), wishful (It's time we got out) or conditional modality
Allomorphism is observed in English negative statements with the negative pronouns and negative adverbs no, nobody, nothing, nowhere, never, etc. which have double negation in Ukrainian where it is formed by the negative pronoun or negative adverb and the negative particle не, eg:
Не було видно жодного собаки. Я і справді нічого не знаю... But really I know nothing... (Doyle) I never had such a wonderful holiday... (Cusack)
A. General Questions in English mostly open with an auxiliary, modal or linking verb followed by the subject. Ukrainian general questions may open with any part of the sentence. Rather often Ukrainian general questions also open with a particle: " Did you do it?" (Saroyan) To, може, ти це зробив? Note. To express inquiry, suggestion or uncertainty, general questions may open in colloquial English with the finite verb or with the subject of the sentence (as in Ukrainian): "Got a cigarette, Root?" "Hear anything?" "Scared of the dark, kid?"
B. Disjunctive/Tag-Questions have in English and Ukrainian semantic and structural equivalents as well. Structural identity is observed in disjunctive questions consisting of an affirmative or negative statement followed by a negative and/or affirmative question tag. "You're not afraid, are you?" "Ти ж не боїшся, так?/ правда?/ Allomorphism is observed, however, in the ability of some Ukrainian tag-questions to be transformed into general questions: "You are all right, aren't you?" "У тебе все гаразд, чи не так? or Правда ж, у тебе все гаразд?"
C. Alternative Questions are characterised in both contrasted languages by absolutely isomorphic features only: the existence of a semantically and structurally common alternative conjunction or corresponding to the Ukrainian чи. The introductory part in these sentences coincides in both languages and may be either a general question or a special question by its structure. Is he married or single? (Sheridan) Він одружений чи ще ні?
D. Special/Pronominal Questions are characterised in the contrasted languages by generally common features. They open with an interrogative pronoun or adverb which may sometimes be preceded by prepositions, particles or interjections. For example: Who said so? What did you say? And what is it? These sentences have absolute structural equivalents in Ukrainian: Хто це так сказав? Що ти сказав? А що це таке? Allomorphic is only the often use of prepositions in the closing position of the special question in English: Where do you come from?
Sentences of Hypothetic Modality Isomorphic is the expression by means of predicative parts or through the inserted notional words/phrases which are either modal words/phrases or predicates that include notional and modal verbs or their lexical equivalents: Perhaps he was really not so young as he looked. Може, він і справді не був таким молодим, як із вигляду. The expression of hypothetic modality through modal words is therefore identical in both languages. In Ukrainian it is mostly the predominant expression of hypothetic modality through the modal particles б/би, десь, ледве, ніби, наче, либонь, чи не,, навряд чи and some others. For example:
"Навряд чи й двоє з ним справились би ". "Even both of them would have hardly managed to overpower him.
F. Rhetorical Questions have a modal meaning which does not contain any new information for the speaker. Structurally interrogative by form, these questions contain a negative or an affirmative statement with a respective implicit answer. Rhetorical questions realise structurally a statement and a question simultaneously. Cf.: Can the leopard change his spots? or: Хіба горбатого могила виправить? А кого це кортить?
Sentences of Incentive Modality / спонукальної модальності. Incentive modality originates in English and Ukrainian from optative modality and may have the meaning of incentiveness proper or it may express wishful incentiveness. Hence, the two different structural types of sentences to express these varieties of incentiveness:
Imperative sentences in which the main incentive meaning constitutes a categorial demand which is expressed through the imperative mood forms of verbs denoting order, command, request, warning, prohibition, persuasion, etc. The incentive meaning of this type is realised through a) one-member sentences, eg: Silence! Stop talking! b) two-member sentences, eg: Vanish the dream! Згинь, ця думко!
Incentive modality may also be expressed in exclamatory sentences through the meaning of the auxiliary verb "let" and in Ukrainian by the particles нум or нумо. Cf. "Let me go and see him alone." Хай / Нум я сам зайду до нього. Let George do it. Хай/Нехай хтось інший робить це.

Екзаменаційний білет № 18

1. Compare functional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian
Prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles. The distinctive features of functional parts of speech: 1) weak lexical meaning; 2) obligatory combinability; 3) the function of linking and specifying words.

The Article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions. It exists only in English. The Preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of substantive referents. They are simple (at, in, of, на, при, без); compound (into, without, із-зі, попід, проміж); derivative (along, below, внаслідок, завдяки); composite (by means of, owing to, незалежно від, згідно з). In Ukrainian certain simple prep. consist of a single sound (в, у, з).

The Conjunction expresses connections of phenomena. They are simple (and, but, та, і); compound (although, unless, або, проте, якщо); composite (as if, as soon as, для того, щоб, з того часу, як). Functionally they are subdivided into copulative (and, as well as, як... так і, також); disjunctive (either or, чи, або... або); adversative (but, still, yet, все ж, але); resultative (so, hence, так що, тобто); a causal conjunction for is pertaining only to English (A do it for you to get pleasure). Semantically they are grouped into conjunctions of time (since, поки, доки); place (wherever, де); cause \ reason (as, because, оскільки, бо); condition (if, unless, якби, аби); purpose (lest, that, щоб); result (so that, that, так що); concession (though, even if, хоч, хай); comparison (as if, мовби, неначе).

The Particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning: absolutely, here, just, never, else, also, саме, точно, тільки, лише, хіба, просто, ось. The Interjection, occupying a detached position in the sentence, is a signal of emotions or greetings, may be onomatopoeic or imperative: great, hey, oops, hush, hi, bang, чудово, геть, прошу, дінь, хлюп, сюди, ух, о: simple (ah, ох); compound (yo-ho, спасибі); composite (nuts, жах).
Most of these functionals, except the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or, чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As to the number of functionals in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English), сполучники, прийменники, мод.слова та вирази.

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