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Contrast the structural types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.
The structural types of sentences are common in the contrasted languages: Simple: extended and unextended; one-member and two-member; complete and elliptical. Composite: compound and complex.
The basic kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P (Subject — Predicate) mode. Two-member sentences have a larger representation in English than in Ukrainian, constituting a typological divergence of the two languages. Two-member sentences, non-existent in Ukrainian, are as follows:
1. Impersonal sentences which are introduced by the impersonal pronoun it: It is thundering. It snowed.
2. Indefinite personal sentences with the subject expressed by the indefinite personal pronoun one, they, you: One says. They say. You don’t say so.
3. Sentence with the introductory it or there: It is time to start. There is nothing to say.
4. Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed by a preposition: He was sent for. The bed was not slept in.
5. Sentences with the secondary predication: I thought him to be a teacher. We saw her cross the street.
One-member sentences have a larger number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the morphological nature of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language
The definite personal sentences. The doer of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb, eg: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю. Любіть (ви / всі) Україну всім серцем своїм…
The indefinite personal sentences in which their main part, i. e., the verbal component, correlates with the finite verb in the third person plural. Its action may refer to the present, past of future in the indicative, imperative or in the subjunctive mood, eg: Сіяли всю ніч. Дзвонять в усі дзвони. Давніх друзів не забувають.
The generalized personal sentences are similar to definite personal sentences. The action of their main part refers to any person correlating with the second person in singular or plural of the indicative or imperative mood, eg: За правду й за народ ставай життям! Дивиться лисицею, а думає вовком! Поживемо – побачимо!
Impersonal sentences: Остапові не спалось. Роботу покинуто. Неможливо знищити.
The allomorphic one-member sentences are:
A. Imperative (inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP structure: Keep aside, keep aside! Pass on, pass on!– Не підходь, не підходь! Проходьте, проходьте!
B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally coincide in English and Ukrainian with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: Thieves! Fire! How funny! Damn your money Злодії! Вогонь! Як гарно! К бісу твої гроші!
С. Infinitival sentences in the contrasted languages have practically identical structural forms: To be or not to be? To be alive! Бути чи не бути? Бути живим!
D. Elliptical sentence is a shorter form of sentence which some words have been omitted, but it retains the same meaning. It is used so that we can avoid unnecessary repeated words. (Taking risks? Подумав?).
E. Nominative (Night. Measure for Measure. Темнота та тиша. Чудовий сон!);
One-Word Sentences/Quasi-Sentences are speech units devoid of the binary S – P (a single S or P) structure. They may consist of a single word or of a functionally equivalent phrase expressing affirmation, negation, address or emotive/incentive meaning. One-word sentences serve to establish or to disjoin the speech contact.
1. Affirmative are usually short answers to the preceding questions, eg: “A real beauty?” – “Indeed”. “Do you love me?” – “Uh huh”. - Аякже … Так! Я буду крізь сльози сміятись.
2. Negative sentences express negation. Their most common components in English and Ukrainian are no, not yet, not at all; ні, зовсім ні, не так, та ні, ще ні, eg: “Hear anything?” – “No. Not a thing”. “You can’t help us at all?” – “Not at all”. (G.Greene) “Ні, ні! Що ти кажеш? Може, й випадково. Ні.(Кочерга)
3. Interrogative convey questions, inquiry, doubt, eg: “…what on earth’s the matter?” –“ Nothing. Why?”. Her voice trembled a little. “Well?”. “В мене екзамен був”. – “Ну і як?”
4. Emotional and exclamatory may be expressed by interjections and other functional words together with notionals: “Goodness sakes! “Not time yet!”. “Го-го! “Ах, он як! Розумію.
5. Incentive and evaluative sentences are also formed from interjections or their functional equivalents which may be phrases or notionals by nature: ”Bosh! Don’t be moral”. “Ssh!” said the Daddy “Їй-богу ж ні!” “Овва. “
6. Vocative sentences express direct address. They are more metacommunicative in the contrasted languages, than any other of the above-given onemember sentences. They mostly require a response, for example: “Tom! Tom!” – No answer “Hullo Pyle”. “ Україно! Ти для мене диво! “
Another difference of paramount importance between the two languages is that of word order. WO in English is of much greater importance than in Ukrainian. The word order in the English sentence is fixed, for English as an analytic language relies much on the order of sentence constituents to convey important grammatical information.
Another important typological difference between English and Ukrainian concerns ellipsis (omitting some elements of the sentence to avoid repetition). Ellipsis is the most vivid manifestation of “word economy”. Elliptical sentences are typical of both English and Ukrainian, but Ukrainian as a synthetic language has far more possibilities for missing out informatively redundant elements of the sentence.
A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian contains two or more primary predication centers mostly represented by as many corresponding clauses. But still there are some divergent features.
1. In English causative-resultative relations may be expressed not only by subordination, but by coordination as well: It was not yet daylight, for the candle was burning. She hasn’t much stress in her, so I easily kept her quiet. In Ukrainian this meaning is expressed only by subordinate clauses.
2. Compound coordinate sentences are more spread in Ukrainian. Ukrainian compound sentences with connectives аж, коли, як expressing the meaning of a sudden, unexpected event in English are transformed into subordinate sentences with the meaning of unexpectedness expressed lexically: Іду лісом, аж біжить лисиця. – I was going through the forest when suddenly a fox came running.
3. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
4. Attributive sentences are of two types in both contrasted languages – restrictive and non-restrictive. Restrictive attributive clauses are more tightly connected with the main clause, their elimination leads to the ambiguity of the sentence, e.g.: Where is the book that I gave you yesterday? Де книжка, яку я тобі вчора дав? Non-restrictive attributive clauses can be easily removed without making the main clause semantically incomplete: This was a hit at George, who was notoriously hard up – Це був випад проти Джорджа, який сидів без грошей.
If one of the clauses in a composite sentence governs another one, they are linked subordinately – complex sent. Depending upon the function of a subordinate clause in the whole sentence, clauses fall into: - subject (What was important for him was absolutely necessary for us. Хто чесно бореться, (той) завжди перемагає); predicative (She was as if frightened to death. Вона не така, щоб нічого не робити по дому); object (He knew that she was faithful to him. Я хотів, щоб у мене було більше вільного часу); attributive (The house, which was built not far from the town, was quite big. Оце та станція, на якій я зійшов минулого разу); adverbial clauses: of place (He is happy to be at home where he can find his true friends. Вони пішли туди, де ми їх не чекали), of time (When you are free, I am always busy. Я чекав на них, доки не пішов дощ), manner (She cried as she was asked. Вітер замутив воду, аж осока зашуміла), comparison (He looked as if he had been caught in a trap. Вона виглядає так, начебто вона отримала двійку), condition (If you ask me, I’ll tell you all about this case. Якби все було добре, вона не поїхала б додому), concession (She was happy, though we all knew her fault. Хоча вона й була сердитою, ми добре провели час), purpose (I do it, so that you may be pleased. Ми зателефонуємо йому, щоб він не гаяв час), cause (I am sorry, because you have failed to amuse me. Я розсердився, тому що ви не виконали свої обіцянки), result or consequence (I sat down quickly so that you might be seen by many people. Повітря було настільки прозоре, що я бачив зорі), attendant circumstances (I went down the street, my shoes were creaking) [only in English]. It corresponds to a compound sentence in Ukrainian (Я пішов по вулиці, а мої черевики скрипіли).
Екзаменаційний білет № 19
1. Compare the main kinds of syntagmatic connection in English and Ukrainian
The elements of word-groups can be joined either Syndetically by means of prepositions or conjunctions (books for reading, читати по черзі) or Asyndetically by means of intonation (easy-reading books, писати швидко). English has a greater asyndetic potential if compared with Ukrainian because of its analytical character.
Syntagmatic groupings: - syntagmatic groupings of notional words alone (interesting book, цікава книга); - syntagmatic groupings of notional words with functionals (to get rid of sth, зважати на щось)- syntagmatic groupings of functional words alone (up to, тому що).
Syntactic connection is realized in 3 types: subordination, coordination, predication.
Coordination – (the components are equal in rank: young and beautiful; мати, батько, сестра). Subordination – is a type of syntactic connection where one element is a dominant and the second is subordinated to it. It is realized in three types of syntactic relations between the head word and the subordinate one: 1. Agreement – a way of expressing a syntactic relationship which consists of making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the head word (this book-these books, велике щастя). 2. Government – a way that implies a certain change of the subordinate word required by the head word, but not similar to the form of the head word itself: (to be fond of smth, читаю роман). 3. Adjoining – a type of syntactic relations when elements make a syntactic group without changing their forms (to go quickly, можливість аналізувати). 4. Enclosure (замыкание) – some element of a phrase is enclosed between two parts of another element, for example, by putting of a word between an article and the noun to which the article belongs: (the then government). Objective sub. Ph. (ask a question, намалювати картину) and qualifying sub. Ph.: attributive (awesome dress, печальна пісня) and adverbial (extremely difficult, пізно йти).
Predication – a specific type of syntactic connection characteristic of the relations between the subject and the predicate. Primary predicative phrases (those that comprise the subject and the predicate) are of isomorphic nature: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. Secondary predicative phrases: Complex object with the infinitive (I heard him roll in blankets), Complex subject with the infinitive (He is reported to have been taken into custody), For- complex (The boy stood aside for me to go by), Complex object with the participle (I saw her coming), Complex subject with the participle (The rain was heard clattering.), Absolute participle construction (This being so, I should like to go out.), Gerundial complex (Excuse my being late.).
In English 24% of word-groups are joined by means of agreement, whereas in Ukrainian – 53%. In English 39% of word-groups have government and in Ukrainian – 32%. Adjoinment is spread in English (37%), whereas in Ukrainian they present a minority – 15%.
The links between the elements of a word-group:
- predicative unites the subject and the predicate,(ми читаємо) building up the basis of a sentence;
- o bjectiv e connections: see a book, малювати картину;
- attributive unites a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective: puny creature, цікава новина);
- a dverbial is subdivided into primary and secondary.The primary adverbial connections is established between the verb and its adv. modifiers of various standings(to talk seriously,говорити голосно, йти з радістю). The secondary adverbial connection is established between the non-verbal kernel expressing a quality and its adverbial modifiers of various standings (wonderfully interesting, very much at ease, дуже весело).
2. Contrast the predicative word groups in English and Ukrainian.
The extensively used in English they are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. The syntactic interdependence between the components student and works remains unchanged when the predicative wg is singled out of the sent.
Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes are represented in English in the following structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes: The objective with the infinitive: Again he saw Michael moisten his lips. The subjective with the infinitive: Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. The infinitival prepositional: The boy stood aside for me to go by. The objective with the participle: I'm sorry to have kept you waiting. The subjective with the participle: He could be seen following her with his eyes. The gerundial constructions/complexes: Hope you don't mind my comings.
Екзаменаційний білет № 20
1. Compare the main groups of English and Ukrainian verbs
The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs (go, ask, write; іти, запитувати, писати) and b) auxiliary verbs that split into primary (be, do, have; бути, мати), modal (can, may, must, could, should, need; могти, мусити, сміти, мати, etc.) and linking verbs (дієслова-звязки) (appear, look, become turn grow; ставати, здаватися).
English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian: regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending, -ed, -d or -t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent); 2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin -began - begun). Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle -d or -t ending (tell - told - told, keep -kept - kept, think - thought - thought). There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show — showed - shown, crow — crew — crowed). A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast - cast - cast, cost - cost - cost, let - let - let, put - put - put, etc. They are not available in Ukrainian, thought suppletive verbs are common: be - was - were, go - went; бути - є, іти -пішов, пішла, брати - взяв, узяли). As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into:
1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive): to act, to go, to sleep, to glisten (діяти, йти, спати, блищати.
2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to take, to envy (брати, давати, заздрити and others).
3. Terminative verbs expressing action having final aims (to close, to open, to come, to find; зачиняти, приходити, заходити). 4. Durative verbs expressing action with no final aim: to like, to love, to hate, to hope, to work (подобатись, любити, ненавидіти). 5. Mixed-type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to stand, to know, to remember (сидіти, стояти, знати, пам'ятати).6. Reflexive verbs, which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself, myself, himself, ourselves: to wash oneself, to shave himself; to see herself in the mirror, etc. Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian correspond to forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися, голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.). Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages:
1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися, змагатися, вітатися, листуватись, цілуватись. 2. Indirectly reflexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися, збиратися (в похід), лаштуватися (в дорогу). 3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні: милуватися, дивуватися, злитися, журитися, мучитися. 4. Active-objectless reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака кусається), дряпатися (кішка дряпається), жалитися (кропива жалиться), колотися (стерня колеться). 5. Passively-qualitative reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися, ламатися, м'ятися, колотися (дерево гарно колеться), кривитися (залізо гнеться, скло б'ється, дитина кривиться). 6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не спиться, не їсться, погано/гарно живеться, не лежиться.
Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups: 1. Modal verbs serve to connect the subject of the sentence with the part of the verbal compound predicate. They include can/могти, may/могти, should/слід/треба, ought to/слід, have to/мати, be to/мати бути, dare/сміти, need/потребувати; would/ shall/will do not have Ukrainian modal equivalents.
2. Link verbs divide into three groups:
1) Link verbs of being, cf. be/ бути/доводитися, feel/ бути на дотик, look/ бути на вигляд, seem/ здаватися, taste/ бути на смак, smell/ бути на запах. In Ukrainian there are also вважатися, доводитися, зватися, cf. Це вважається/зветься правдою.
2) Link verbs of becoming, cf. get/ become / ставати, turn /робитися,ставати. English link verbs of beсoming can be substituted in Ukrainian by notion verbs (They grew stronger = Вони стали міцнішими; The wood turned red =Ліс зробився рудим; But: She grew older = Вона постаріла; He became grey = Він посивів).
3) Link verbs of remaining, cf. remain/залишатися, keep/стояти, stay/залишатися, continue/залишатися, сf. The weather kept obstinately hot and dry/Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою; He remained/stayed silent/Він залишався мовчазним.
Besides link verbs and modal verbs there exists a group of analytical word morpheme s also called auxiliary verbs: be, do, have, shall/will/should/would which correspond to one Ukrainian verb бути.
2. Contrast the complex sentence in English and Ukrainian.
Complex sentences present an isomorphic type in the system of composite sentences of the contrasted languages. These sentences consist of two or more complex sentences preceding and following the co-ordinate conjunction. Complex sentences may be two-member (subordinate clause is not part of the main clause) and one-member (subordinate clause is part of the main clause) in both contrasted languages, but English has more one-member complex sentences than Ukrainian, Cf.: It was where they used to meet before – Це було там, де вони зустрічались раніше. The example shows it is more usual in Ukrainian to use two-member complex sentences with the antecedent (in this example it is the word там) in the main clause.
This type of composite sentence has some isomorphic features in the contrasted languages: 1) the complex sentence has a polypredicative nature; 2) it is characterised by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some logico-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include predicative, objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the corresponding clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding position/place in regard to the matrix clause.
The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-groups. Hence, there are distinguished the typologically relevant groups of subordinate clauses:
In English and In Ukrainian 1.Substantive-nominal - Субстантивно-номінативні: subject subordinate clauses (підметові підрядні речення); predicative subordinate clauses (присудкові підрядні речення); objective subordinate clauses (додаткові підрядні речення). 2.Qualitatively-nominal - Квалітативно-номінативні: descriptive attributive clauses (описові атрибутивні підрядні речення), restrictive/limiting attributive (обмежуючі атрибутивні підрядні речення). 3.Adverbial Clauses (Адвербіальні підрядні речення) of time, place, purpose, cause, attending circumstances, condition.
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