Task 2. Match the word with the definition

Task 3. Match the verbs given on the left with the nouns on the right to form word combinations.

1. Law is a body of rules which a group or community recognized as binding upon its members, and enforce through an agency of the state, usually a court.

2. Religious, ethical and moral rules are comletely differentiate from each other, and don’t have anything in common.

4. In less developed societies, it can be a dependence on custom, in that this passes from one generation to another and the rate of change may be relatively slow.

Explain differences between written and unwritten laws. In your opinion, which is better?

Written laws are laws which have been enacted in the constitution or in legislations.

Unwritten law is a law which is not contained in any statutes and can be found in case decisions. This is known as the common law or case law.

Unwritten rules, principles, and norms that have the effect and force of law though they have not been formally enacted by the government.

Most laws in America are written. The US Code, the Code of Federal Regulations, and the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure are three examples of written laws that are frequently cited in federal court. Each state has a similar body of written laws. By contrast, unwritten law consisits of those custom, traditions, practices, usages, and other maxims of human conduct that the government has recognized and enforced. Unwritten law is most commonly found in primitive societies where illiteracy is prevalent. Because many residents in such societies cannot read and write, there is little point in publishing written laws to govern their conduct. Instead, societal disputes in primitive societies are resolved informally, through appeal to unwritten maxims of fairness or popularity accepted modes of behavior. Litigans present their claims orally in most primitive societies, and judges announce their decisions in the same fashion. The governing body in primitive societies typically enforces the useful traditions that are widely practiced in the community, while those practices that are novel or harmful fall into disuse or are discouraged.[3]

4. Where is unwritten law most commonly found? How are societal disputes in primitive societies resolved?

Each country’s legal system has its own sources of law, with greater weight placed on some sources than others. In developing an infrastructure project, it is important to identify which sources of law apply in the host country and their weighting. The following are the most common sources:

In Civil Law systems these rules are usually embodied in “Codes”. All but a very few countries have written constitution where these fundamental rules can be easily identified (although their interpretation may be less straightforward). The remaining few have unwritten constitution established by long-standing tradition. A Constitution overrides any other source of law and it is usually highly difficult to amend. There may be a separate judicial court which considers constitutional issues, namely whether any law, regulation or administrative act inconsistent with Constitution and therefore void.

In some countries, judicial decisions are authoritative and develop into a source of law known as “case law”. Case law may extend the application of legislation and is deemed to form part of the law.

In other jurisdiction (mainly civil law jurisdiction) judicial decisions are formally only deemed to interpret the existing law and are not a binding source of law, although in practice they are often treated as authoritative.

It covers a wide and varied area of practice, encompassing many different types of governmental legal procedures and regulations, and is not easily defined. Much of government and its public programs operate largely through various agencies on different levels: federal, state, county, and city. These agencies are also known as boards, commissions, departments, and divisions. They generally have their own specific rules and regulations, which are not usually found in the statutes, with stringent procedures individuals must follow to obtain assistance from the agency and to file claims, grievances and appeals. Legal rulings by Administrative Law Judges (ALJ’s) have governing authority the same as most precedent law. Administrative law attorneys can offer assistance when maneuvering through these complicated proceedings.The Administrative Procedure Act is the governing law for federal administrative agencies. Most states also have their own governing law for their state administrative agencies. These laws allow for the creation of the rules and regulations, as well as the procedures necessary for those unhappy with the agencies or their decisions to seek remedies via appeal or complaint. They are carried out with the same authority as the more well-known statutory laws, and so, as with other areas of law, the skills of an experienced administrative law attorney are often required. [4]

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