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Interrelationship of Papacy and Catholic Governments.T he Council of Trent and the formation of the Jesuit order, allowed — to a certain degree — the Papacy to re-establish its importance, which had been shaken by the Reformation. After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the lengthy struggle for religious truth, the importance of papacy in the catholic world began to fall gradually. In mid-seventeen century, the Catholic emperors began to apply principles of political individualism and balance of powers in international relations. As a result, papal interests in church politics lost all their significance to them. In the interests of the state, emperors begin to neglect general church matters, acting without regard to the wishes of Popes. In their dominions, they endeavor to stamp their authority without having to be dependent in civil or church matters. This political direction, hostile to all theocratic pretensions of the Popes, evoked opposition from them. However, all their efforts to preserve for the Roman throne the authority of the Middle Ages, failed. The gradual curbing of papal authority and power, which began in the 17th century as a result of new political directions, continues to this day. In the second half of the 17th century, from among all the Catholic states, France attempted with especial determination to restrict papal authority. King Louis XIV (1643-1715), although an ardent Catholic, wanted to control church matters within his kingdom independently of the Pope. He even appropriated the right to appoint bishops in those areas of France, where this right belonged to the Papal throne from ancient times. Pope Innocent IX (1678-89) declared his protest against the king’s actions, who in turn, placed the question of restrictions of the king’s and Pope’s powers in the Church, before parliament. In order to have this matter resolved, the king summoned the French clergy to a council. At the council in 1682, the clergy endeavoring to free itself from subordination to the Pope, worked out 4 positions that defined the rights of the French Church. The essence of these determinations are: 1) God did not grant Apostle Peter, nor his successors, authority in civil affairs. That’s why Church authorities cannot dismiss monarchs and grant dispensation to their subjects from their oath of allegiance and duty; 2) The French Church reaffirms the decisions of the Constance Council, which recognized the authority of an ecumenical council as being greater than that of a Pope; 3) The rights and practices, adopted by the French kingdom and Gaelic Church, must remain inviolable and 4) Papal decisions in matters of faith, receive immutable potency only when they receive consensus from the whole Church. Having confirmed this position, Louis empower it by making it law. However, it is true that in 1693 — for political reasons — Louis was forced to allow his bishops to declare to the Pope, their rejection of the 1682 decrees. But in reality these rejections were not genuine, and the Gaelic Church, whenever it needed to — on the basis of the four situations — always rebuffed papal pretensions. In the 18th century, the weakened papacy was forced to make more concessions to the pressures from Catholic kings. Upon their insistence, the Popes even agreed to the abolition of the Jesuit order — their main support. By the 18th century, the Jesuit Order had developed enormously. It spread throughout the whole world and took control of the upbringing of youths and church confessions. With this, it acquired enormous wealth, which was obtained partly from donors that had been artificially lured by the Jesuits, and partly from the commercial activities of the order in Europe and other parts of the world. Their main aim was not to convert heretics, but to secure dominance over all Christian societies. Their most favored means in achieving this goal was through intrigues and plots, accompanied by various types of criminal acts. Through their intrigues, they enmeshed all levels of society, beginning with the high royal courts, where the Jesuits penetrated and through which they strove to control the states and politics. However, it’s true that from the end of the 16th century, the Jesuits were meeting ideological opposition within the Catholic world. At the end of the 16th century, a dispute arose between them and the Dominicans regarding the question of grace. Later, the Augustines and Jansenites started a quarrel with them. Beginning in 1743, the casuistic morality of the Jesuits was subjected to sharp attacks from some of the Italian Dominicans. At the time, there were many noted cardinals that were committed opponents of Jesuits. The Jesuits aggravated many other missionaries in their missionary work, resorting to immoral means in their struggle against them. Condemnations were leveled against the Jesuit’s developing trading operations, which was of a speculative nature. Dissatisfaction with them was growing. In Italy, some towns expelled the Jesuits for their behavior. The first Catholic country to directly confront the Jesuits was Portugal. Following an agreement, concluded in 1750 between Spain and Portugal, some districts of Paraguay had to be transferred to the latter; however, the local populace under the leadership of the Jesuits, displayed armed resistance against the Portuguese authorities. Consequences ensued. Before they came to a head, an attempt on the life of Portugal’s king Joseph I was made in 1758. The Jesuits were accused of involvement in this crime, and on the 3rd of September 1759, under the initiatives of minister Pombal, a royal edict was issued banning the Jesuit order from Portugal's borders; their members were put on trial and transplanted to papal provinces. The banishment of Jesuits from France was caused by their trading operations. In 1743, patter Lavalletestablished in Martinique, a trading house under the guise of a mission, and concentrated all trading with the West-Indies into his own hands. Having lost two vessels to the British, he declared himself bankrupt in 1755. As was the practice also in those days, in order to avoid huge payoffs to the victims, the Order disowned him. An investigative process began in Paris, which unearthed a series of abuses by the Order. The Paris parliament found the Order guilty and directed it to pay the debt. At the same time, a commission was formed to examine the status of the Order. In 1762, the commission published its findings; the Order was recognized as being dangerous to the state. King Louis XV offered the general of the Jesuits to include some changes to the Order’s charter, but this was rejected. In 1762, by order of the King, the Jesuits were expelled from France. In 1767, by order of the Spanish king Carlos III, 6000 Jesuits were arrested in one day and shipped out to a Papal district. They were also expelled from Naples, and in 1768, from Parma. In 1769, the Catholic kings adamantly demanded from Pope Clement XIII (1758-69) a formal abolition of the Jesuit Order. Through the relentless requests from the Jesuits, the Pope in 1765 triumphantly confirmed the Order by a bull “Apostolicum.” Crushed by the pressure of the kings, he fell ill and died soon after. The kings were able to appoint Cardinal Ganganelli as Pope, being regarded as sympathetic to their demands. However, having become Pope Clement XIV (1769-74), he too was not agreeable for a long time to the abolition of the Order. It was only on the 21st of July 1773 that he published “Dominicus ac Redemptor noster,” by which the society of Jesus and all its establishments are abolished. After this, the order was abolished in Austria and the Catholic state of Germany. Naturally, the jesuits continued to function clandestinely. Pope Clement died soon after; the cause of death being attributed to poison. It is interesting to note that this Papal decree was never published in Russia and Protestant Prussia. King Frederick II the Great even enticed jesuits to undertake upbringing activities. He later lost faith in them. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Order was abolished in Prussia and the Jesuits expelled from the land. In Russia, the jesuits had a Lithuanian vice-province, which was headed by a rector of the board of Polotzk, Stanislaw Chernevich. Initially, Empress Catherine II instructed the Byelorussian governor-general Chernishev, to carefully watch the activities of the Jesuits, who endeavored to show their trustworthiness. Following this, the Empress didn’t permit the publication of the Pope’s decree within her Empire. The Pope’s urging to have his instructions acknowledged were fruitless. In 1801, Pope Pius VI acknowledged the existence of the Order in Lithuania and Byelorussia. It was only in 1815 that the jesuits were expelled from St. Petersburg, because it was discovered that they were spreading banned Catholic propaganda. In 1820, strong measures against them followed. Only those jesuits that entered other Orders or joined the ranks of married clergy, could remain in Russia. By this time, the Order was already restored universally. This was announced by Pope Pius VII on the 7th of August 1814 by a special bull. In Spain and Portugal, the jesuits were first accepted, then expelled. Officially, the Order was not restored in France. However, in the restoration era and during the rule of Emperor Napoleon III, the Jesuits enjoyed an influential position. In 1880, they were banished from France. Naturally, their clandestine operations continued in all countries. With time, other disasters followed the Order’s banishment. In Austria, Emperor Joseph II (1780-90) undertook reforms in Church administration, so that the control of external Church matters fell into government hands. At the same time, her internal workings were handed to the bishops, making papal influence on the Austrian Church virtually non-existent. In some minor German states of Catholic faith, attempts were made to establish a national Catholic church, independent of the Pope. Finally in 1789, a revolution began in France, which accompanied the downfall of papal influence not only in France but in the very papal state. During this revolution, the papacy — represented by Pius VI and Pius VII — experienced such humiliation, the likes of which she hadn’t seen since Pope Boniface VIII. In 1796, the French appeared in Italy, occupied all papal holdings and established a Roman republic (1798). Pope Pius VI (1774-99), dispossessed and humiliated, was taken prisoner to France where he died shortly after. His successor, Pope Pius VII — chosen in Vienna under the protection of Austria — was subjected to similar persecution from Napoleon I, who in 1809, transported him to France and forced him to agree to make France the perpetual seat for all Roman cardinals. It was only after Napoleon’s fall in 1814 that the Pope had the opportunity to return to Rome, while in 1815, at the Vienna congress, he had his spiritual and secular rights reinstated. Papa Pius VII, having returned to Rome and restoring the Jesuit Order — according to the bull, these “powerful and experienced helmsmen” of the papal throne — he concentrated his attention toward the re-establishing his authority. With the open appearance of the jesuits, declarations of papal rights to dominance over all secular and spiritual matters of the world intensified. However, they found very little sympathy. At that time, among a range of European countries, aspirations of national unification and political independence prevailed. Hostile relations toward Jesuits began to heighten in Spain, Italy and France. In Italy, this movement assumed an especially dangerous form to the papal authority. Here, in mid-nineteenth century, the various political aspirations took a definitive form — the unification of Italy under one king with Rome being the capital. This became a vital subject for the whole of the Italian people. Together with this, pronouncements began to emerge voicing opposition to the Pope’s secular authority. Finally, the Sardinian king — Victor Emmanuel — realized the people’s aspirations. In 1861, he was able to unite under his authority, small Italian states and appropriated the title of King of Italy. In 1870, he annexed the papal church domain to his united Italy and made Rome the capital of his kingdom. At that time, the Pope was the renowned Pius IX (1846-78). Unable to sustain his secular powers with a force of arms, he relinquished Rome without a struggle. However, at the same time he published an encyclical to all Catholic bishops, in which he protested against the seizure of Rome, damned and excommunicated Victor Emmanuel and his associates. Nevertheless, the anathema and excommunication didn’t change the flow of events — with the occupation of Rome by troops of united Italy, the papal church domain ceased to exist. Having abolished the secular authority of the Pope, Victor Emmanuel I went about in a most respectable manner, to establish himself as the spiritual leader of the whole Catholic world. Pope Pius IX and his followers were offered at their disposal, the township called Leo i.e. a suburb of Rome — built in the 9th century by Pope Leo IV — which situated the Vatican and St. Peter’s cathedral. All papal palaces in and outside the city, together with their supplementary holdings, were also taken over by the king; in place of the revenue received from these properties, the Pope was granted a fixed sum of money from the state; the papal persona was declared holy and inviolable; the freedom and independence of the Pope’s primate duties were guaranteed by the king and the whole nation etc. However Pius IX didn’t want to reconcile himself with the accomplished fact, regarding himself as a prisoner in his Vatican and to the very day of his death, refused to agree with the Italian government. In 1929, Pope Pius XII concluded the Lateran Treaty with the Italian constitutional monarchy government.
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