To do something in neat/best

A fair copy

only in schools

This may be either a rough version written out neatly, or the best possible version of a translation, from the linguis­tic point of view, which a teacher dictates to the class after marking and returning their translations. (This is done mainly with translations into a foreign language.)

Unlike rough, the adjectives neat, best and fair are not used with the words notes, translation, version, draft. If someone has made rough notes on something and then rewrites them neatly, possibly with certain modifications and additions, one may use the expression to write/copy up one's notes. If someone has done a rough translation, one may say, to write/ copy the translation out (again) neatly or to make a fair copy (see above). After the rough version or draft of something comes not the neat version but the final version.

236. Usage of rough/neat book

Тетрадь в линейку — lined exercise book/notebook

Нотная тетрадь — manuscript book

Тетрадь для записи слов — vocabulary (note)book

The following types of exercise book do not exist in Eng­land, or are rarely used. However, the translations given below may be used, so long as it is understood that they are approximate, descriptive expressions, and not standard Eng­lish terms.

тетрадь в клетку — a squared exercise book or an exercise book with squared paper. This should not be confused with graph book, as described above.

тетрадь в две линейки — a double-lined exercise book or an exercise book with double lines.

тетрадь в косую линейку — an exercise book with slanting guide lines (for children learning to write)

тетрадь для классных работ — classwork book

тетрадь для домашних работ — homework book

Where it is necessary to specify the subject, this can be done in the usual way, that is, for example:

English classwork/homework book

тетрадь для контрольных работ — test book

Pupils should write on the covers of their English exercise books, for example:

Natasha Ivanovo, (Form) 5A, (English) Classwork/Homework/Test Book

or English Grammar/Literature Notebook/Notes or English Vocabulary Book

Дневник

Nothing of this kind exists in England and it is therefore futile to look for an English equivalent. All that can be done is to choose the translation which comes nearest to expressing the idea, keeping in mind that it is not an equivalent, but an approximate translation of a" Russian term, adopted for the convenience of Soviet teachers of English, who need a word for дневник.

Therefore the following functions need to be borne in mind when choosing an English translation; (1) timetable, (2) list of each day's lessons, (3) details of homework set, (4) marks, (5) comments on behaviour, etc., (6) messages to par­ents.

In English schools these functions are fulfilled not by one book, but separately, in the ways described below. (How­ever, one should keep in mind that practice varies considera­bly from one school to another.)

(1) The timetable is copied into a rough book (see unit
232) or onto a specially printed card.

(2) The list of each day's lessons can be seen on the time­
table.

(3) Details of homework set are written either in a home­
work notebook (see unit 226) or in the rough book of the sub­
ject concerned.

(4) Marks are not usually given for oral Work. Marks for
written work are put at the end of each piece of work, and
usually entered in the subject teacher's mark book. Examina­
tion marks and general term marks are entered on the pupils'
end-of-term report. This is a sheet of paper on which all the
school subjects are listed, and beside each subject name the
examination mark (if there have been examinations that term),
a mark for the pupil's term work as a whole, and a comment or
short paragraph from the form teacher on the pupil's general
progress and conduct, and sometimes a comment by the head
teacher, or at least his/her signature. The number of absences
is usually also given. School report is used in situations where
report alone would not be clear enough.

(5) Comments on behaviour, etc. are given on the report.

(6) Notice of parents' meetings, concerts, plays, open days
and special arrangements of any kind are usually sent by cir­
cular letter, that is, a general letter to all parents, which is

duplicated and a copy of which is given to

each pupil,to take home. In the case 6f individual problems the head teacher or form teacher writes to the pupil's parents personally.

Therefore, from the English point of view, дневник has the combined characteristics of a timetable, homework note­book and weekly report, with the additional function of pass­ing on messages to parents.

The translations usually suggested are diary or day-book.

Diary is not a satisfactory translation, because in England this word is used mainly in the following two senses:

(1) a written account of events, sometimes daily, sometimes
at irregular intervals. Diary is also used of a special book
for recording daily events, with a page or part of a page for
each day.

(2) a little notebook with a calendar at the front and a
small section for every day of the year. It is used not for
recording events and impressions, but for making a note of
appointments (or engagements). There is also space at the
back for addresses, telephone numbers and other information.

If it is too big to be carried around in the pocket or hand­bag, it is usually called a desk diary, since it is designed to be kept on one's desk (although not a school desk, but at work, especially in offices).

Therefore, although the дневник's division of pages into sections for each day of the year suggests a diary, the use to which it is put is quite different. Diary is not usually connect­ed with schools, except in cases where primary school child­ren write a daily account of their activities to practise their written English, or keep a nature diary, that is, a regular account of their observations of nature.

Day-book is a better translation than diary, although it is not generally associated with educational institutions.

The SOED defines it as: "a diary, journal;... (in book-keeping) a book in which the transactions of the day, as sales, purchases, etc. are entered at once in the order in which they occur." Other dictionaries give only the second, more specific sense. It is primarily a commercial term, although it does not seem to be used much nowa­days. Its meaning is therefore rather vague to most English people, and they may understand it in a general sense, as a book where a daily record of some kind is made. This gives day-book an advan­tage over Лагу, which is widely used in various specific senses quite different from дневник.

Record book is not usually suggested as a translation of дневник but it deserves serious consideration and may be the

best choice. It is a general term denoting any book where some­thing is officially recorded, especially for future reference, and does not have the commercial connotation of day-book. It is widely used in various contexts, including schools, although naturally not in the sense of дневник (whichi does not exist). For example, in some schools there is a record book for each form, in which examination marks and overall term marks are entered at the end of each term, sometimes with comments, as a record of the pupils' progress. (Other schools have a system of record cards, on which a record of each pupil's school ca­reer is kept from year to year.) In other schools (or colleges) record book may mean something slightly different, and this variation in usage prevents the expression from being too spe­cific for our purpose.

Since record book is used in various ways, with the central idea remaining clear, there is no reason why it should not be used for a book in which a daily record is kept of the work and progress of a particular pupil, as in the case of дневник. It does not express all the aspects of дневник. On the other hand, no English word will do that. It is general enough to include the other aspects, except perhaps homework, and gives a fairly accurate general impression of what is meant, that is, a book where the work and progress of the pupil, his success­es and failures, are officially recorded and available for in­spection. It is not specific enough to convey to an English person exactly what is recorded, but it has the advantage over the alternatives of not being misleading and of being used in education.

Finally, it should be emphasised that, when talking to, English people, a detailed description of the following type will be necessary before they understand what is meant.

A special exercise book (or notebook) where each double page is divided into sections, one for each day of the week, rather like a desk diary. It covers one school year. At the front there is a page for the timetable.

In each section the pupils list the lessons for the day, in order, followed by the homework set at the end of each lesson. In the right-hand column marks given for oral and written tests are entered, with the teacher's signature beside them.

At the bottom of each page there is a space for comments by teachers (usually complaints about misbehaviour), for mes­sages to the parents about any special arrangements, parents¹ meetings, etc., and, in particular cases, requests to the parents of an individual child to come to the school. The book must be signed every week by the form teacher and by one of the parents. Even after such an explanation they may not have a very clear idea, unless they actually see а дневник which has been used. They

might then describe it tentatively as "a sort of timetable, homework notebook and weekly report combined".

239. классный журнал

In English schools there is no book in which all the form's marks, subject by subject, are entered, with a record of the material covered, lesson by lesson, on the opposite page. Marks given during the term are entered only in the subject teacher's mark book (see unit 226). In some schools there are form record books (see unit 238 above), where the examination results and overall term marks of each pupil are entered at the end of each term. These are kept in the school office, or in the head teacher's room.

Классный журнал could be translated as form register and record book, although once again this is only an approxi­mate translation, not an equivalent. However, it is too long for everyday use. The word register may be used by itself for the sake of brevity and convenience, as long as one remembers that it only partially corresponds to the Russian expression (see unit 257).

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

240. What has been said about exercise books and notebooks
above (units 225-236) does not apply to English universities
and colleges on the whole, since in England most students
make notes and do written work on paper, which they then put
into various files or folders (see unit 244). However, the vocab­
ulary given in these units can be used in Soviet institutions
when the situation demands. Here is a model of what Soviet
students should write on the cover of their exercise books or
notebooks.

group 2

2nd group (less common)

Notebook/Notes Exercises

or English-Russian Translation/Unseen Translation (see unit 286)

Written Composition (see unit 290)

Note that year can be abbreviated to yr, but that there is no generally accepted abbreviation for group.

Carrying Books and Papers

Briefcase

This is specially designed for carrying books and papers, and usually corresponds to the Russian портфель. A briefcase has a handle. A flat case of a similar type, but without a handle and carried under the arm, is called a document case. However, this is a rather specialised term and not widely used in conversation. Briefcase is often used instead.

Bag

This is a general term, corresponding to the Russian сумка in most cases. It is often qualified, as in handbag and shop­ping bag. It does not denote a receptacle designed for carrying books, papers, etc. and should not be used to translate порт­фель. The latter is a briefcase. A bag and a case are separate concepts.

School bag may be used in the sense of any bag used for carrying books, etc. to school. However, it is not a synonym of briefcase.

Satchel

This is what schoolchildren traditionally carry their books in. A satchel may have one long strap, and be carried on one shoulder, or two straps, like the Russian ранец, in which case it is carried on the back.

There is an increasing tendency for older schoolchildren to have briefcases instead of satchels, and some people, par­ticularly girls, prefer bags of various kinds.

Folder, file

Folder corresponds to папка in most cases, although Eng­lish folders vary more widely in design.

File is sometimes used in the sense of "folder", that is, some sort of cardboard container for papers. Strictly speaking, however, it differs from a folder in that it has metal rings or strings inside, on which papers are put in some sort of order, for example, in alphabetical order, or in date order.

English students use files for their notes, which they make on special file paper, that is, paper with two holes punched in the side, for putting on a file. They have various files for various subjects or courses.

The word file may be used by extension for the collection of papers placed on a file ("дело"). It is also used as a verb, meaning "to place on a file".

Writing Materials 245. pen

This is a general word corresponding to ручка. If neces­sary, one may distinguish between the following types of pen.

A dip-in pen is the old-fashioned type of pen ("ручка с пером"), consisting of a pen-holder and a nib, which one dips into the ink. It is hardly ever used now.

Fountain pen corresponds to авторучка. The full name is used only to distinguish this type from others; otherwise simply pen is used.

's run out of ink. needs filling.

b. / must remember to fill my pen.

Ball-point pen corresponds to шариковая ручка but this name is used only in formal style or technical conversations. In other situations the word biro is usual. This is

the trade name of one of the first manufacturers of ball-point pens, which has now become a common noun.

When a ball-point pen, or biro, runs out, one puts a re­fill in.

e.g. a. — / must get a biro refill.

b.— My biro's run out and I haven't got a refill.

Since biros are to a large extent replacing fountain pens, the word pen may also be used of a biro.

In American English the form ballpoint (without pen) is widely used.

Felt pens ("фломастеры") have become very popular in recent years.

246. pencil — карандаш

lead pencil — простой карандаш

coloured pencil — цветной карандаш

pencil-case — пенал

pencil-sharpener — точилка (для карандашей)

247. Prepositions are used with pen, pencil, etc. as follows:
to write in pencil/ink/biro or with a pencil/pen/biro

In pen is sometimes used by children by analogy with in pencil, but it is not correct.

to write in black/red, etc. /black ink/red biro/blue pencil

248. Other writing materials include:

a ruler — линейка a rubber — резинка

Eraser is a synonym of rubber, but is confined to very for­mal style.

Х. IN THE CLASSROOM

Since there is a varying amount of overlap between usage in schools on the one hand and universities and colleges on the other, it has been considered desirable to treat them in parallel.

Forms of Address

249. Schoolchildren are generally called by their Christian
names.

e.g. a.— Sit down, Susan.

b.— John, start reading, please.

In some state secondary schools and most boys' private'schools, boys are called by their surnames.

e.g. Stop talking, Smith, and get on with your work.

The pupils in nearly all schools (both state and private) call the men teachers sir and the women teachers Miss/Mrs with the surname.

e.g. е.— I've left my book at home, sir. d.— Mrs Barnett, what room are we in?

It is fairly common for children to call all women teachers simply miss, especially in primary schools.

e.g. е.— Please, miss, can I leave the room? f.— John's pushing me, miss.

This form of address is accepted in some schools, but on the whole it is not considered very polite and is discouraged, espec­ially by secondary school age.

Madam or ma'am is the usual form of address

for all women teachers in some schools, particularly in the London area, but this is not general practice, and sounds strange to people who are not used to it.

250. Students are usually called Mr/Mrs/Miss with the sur­
name, that is, as adults, and address the staff in the same way,
unless they are speaking to a doctor or professor (see below).
However, some members of staff address men students by their
surnames alone, and some start calling students by their Chris­
tian names as they get to know them better. Practice varies
from one institution to another. On the whole the newer uni­
versities and colleges are less formal than the older ones.

251. Doctors are addressed as Doctor with the surname,
e.g. a.— Good morning, Dr Barlow.

The form doctor alone is not used, in contrast to medical prac­titioners. The surname is also used when speaking about a doctor.

e.g. b.— Dr Hackett is giving a lecture tomorrow.

The title doctor is not always used when speaking to or about a doctor. In informal situations Mr/Mrs/Miss with the surname may be used. This is especially so in non-academic circles, since to the general public the word doctor tends to suggest a medical practitioner.

252. Professors are addressed as Professor, with or without
the surname.

e.g. a.— Would you mind signing this form, please,

Professor Stanley. b.— May I ask you a question, professor?

However, the use of professor alone is considered very formal by some people. When referring to a professor, one may say, for example:

Professor Bennett?

the professor? (in a depart­ment where there is only one professor)

Professor is usually abbreviated to Prof in writing, and this abbreviation is used by students in colloquial speech.

e.g. d.— Did you go to the prof's lecture?

Greeting the Class

253. In schools, when the teacher comes into the room to start
a lesson, the pupils are expected to stop talking and stand up.
The teacher says:

— Good morning/afternoon, (children) — in primary schools

— Good morning/afternoon, (lA/2B/boys/girls) — in sec­
ondary schools

The pupils reply together:

— Good morning/afternoon, sir/Miss... /Mrs...
e.g.— Good morning, Miss Carter,

Then the teacher says, for example:

— Sit down, please.
and the lesson begins.

254. In universities and colleges relations between staff and
students are generally less formal in this respect. Students
are expected to stop talking when the lecturer comes in, but
not to stand up. This is not considered disrespectful. Some
teachers may say Good morning/afternoon but most simply wait
for silence and then begin their lecture without any greeting.
At classes and seminars, however, some form of greeting is
usual, either Good morning/afternoon or if the atmosphere is
informal, simply Hallo. The students generally reply with the
same words, although not in chorus like schoolchildren.

Lateness

255. If a schoolchild is late for a lesson, he goes up to the
teacher and usually says:

— Гт sorry I'm late, sir/Mrs.../Miss... or — Please
sir/Mrs.../Miss..., Гт sorry I'm late, (mainly
younger children)

This is followed by an explanation, for example:

— Гт sorry I'm late, but I've been helping Mrs Lester to
put some books away.

If the teacher is satisfied with the explanation, he may say:

(go and) sit down.

If he is not satisfied, he may say, for example:

— That's

no excuse.

a poor excuse.

not a very good excuse.

A lame excuse is used, but not so often as the above expres­sions. The teacher may also say:

— You must (learn to)

be on time (for lessons), come to lessons on time.

On time means "at the appointed time, at a specific hour".

e.g. a.— You must come to school on time.

b.— Be sure to give your homework in on time.

The opposite of on time is late.

e.g. е.— / was late for shool/the lesson.

d.— Why did you give your homework in late?

In time means "early enough not to miss any thing important, irrespective of the appointed time". For example, if a lesson should begin at 10 o'clock according to the timetable, a pupil who comes at five past ten is not on time, he is late. However, if the teacher is delayed and comes even later, the pupil is in time, because he has not missed anything. Similarly, one may arrive at the station at 7.10 to catch the 7.05 train, and still be in time, if the train is late leaving.

256. If a student is late for a lecture or class, he is expected to
come in quietly and sit down as unobtrusively as possible.
A university or college teacher does not want his class inter­
rupted by apologies and excuses. However, if the Soviet
teacher feels that a student should apologise for his lateness
in some way, "I'm sorry I'm late" can be recommended.

"May I come in?" can be used if there is a possibility that the teacher will refuse permission. In England, however, this situation does not arise and the question is not asked. A stu­dent who is five or ten minutes late simply enters quietly and sits down, but if he is very late he does not usually go to the class at all, because such unpunctuality is considered to be very impolite.

Attendance, Absence

257. In schools, the form teacher marks the register every
morning before lessons, and often before afternoon lessons too.
The register, or attendance register, as it is called in full,

is a book with a list of the pupils' full names, addresses and dates of birth. When marked, the register is usually kept in the school office, and not taken to lessons.

The expression to take the register is also used in the sense of "to mark". To call the register is used only if the names are called out and the pupils answer. The marking of the register can be called registration in formal style.

e.g. Pupils go to their form-rooms every morning for regis­tration.

To mark smb. present/absent is often used in connection with registration.

In registers, mark books, etc. absent is often abbreviated to abs or a:

Anson, Jennifer Mary Bonnington, William abs.

The teacher may ask: "Who's absent today?" or: "How many people are absent today?", but in non-formal style away is often used instead of the official word absent.

e.g. a.— Who's away today?

b.— / was away last week, so I missed that work.

Similarly here replaces present.

e.g. е.— Is Margaret away/absent? — No, she's here.

When a pupil's name is called, he usually answers Here. A person who is absent is officially called an absentee.

e.g. d.— There are three absentees today.

The teacher may make a list of absentees, or an absence list. Similarly, if children are absent from school, they must bring an absence note from one of their parents when they come back to school (and a medical certificate in cases of illness).

Unauthorised absence from school is called truancy, and we say that a pupil plays truant (from school).

e.g. е. Truancy is a serious problem, in some schools.

f. John's parents did not know that he was playing truant.

Truancy and to play truant imply absence for a whole day or days. If a pupil simply goes somewhere for one or two les­sons one may say, for example:

Не

the English lesson.

To miss a lesson may mean for any reason, good or bad, for example, illness or truancy.

258. In universities and colleges there is generally no formal
marking of a register by the teaching staff. At lectures a spe­
cial sheet of paper called a register or attendance sheet may
be passed round for students to sign (at least in those institu­
tions where attendance is compulsory). At other classes the
teacher simply notes who is absent for his own information,
and this information may be demanded by the head of depart­
ment or the dean in some cases.

Truancy and to play truant are not used in further and higher education. The general verb miss is used, although this may imply through no fault of one's own, for example, because of illness, or something else.

e.g. a.— Г т sorry I missed the lecture. I had to go to the dentist.

In some cases, however, it may mean "deliberately not to go".

e.g. b. (Teacher to student) — You've missed too many lectures this term.

Various colloquial words are used in various institutions, for example, to skip lectures, but none of these are as widely used as the Russian прогуливать. One should avoid little-used or old-fashioned colloquialisms such as to cut lectures and keep to the usual miss.

Classroom Duties

259. In English schools there are usually several monitors/
monitresses in each form, each one responsible for doing a
certain job for a term (besides the form prefect/captain men­
tioned in unit 176). Here are some examples:

board monitor/monitress — responsible for cleaning the board, fetching chalk

homework monitor/monitress — responsible for collecting written homework and taking it to the subject teacher

tidiness monitor/monitress — responsible for keeping the form-room tidy

Therefore if the teacher comes into the room and sees that the

board has not been cleaned, he asks: "Who's the board monitor?" If homework books have not been given in, he asks: "Who's the homework monitor?" and so on. However, practice varies considerably from one school to another in this respect, and in senior forms there are fewer monitors, or none. Such things as cleaning the board and keeping the room tidy are collective responsibilities.

"Who's on duty (today)?" can be used as a translation of "Кто сегодня дежурный?", bearing in mind that in English schools there is a different system.

260. In universities and colleges there are no monitors, nor
is there any equivalent to the Soviet староста. This word
is difficult to translate, because monitor/monitress is too specif­
ically associated with schools, especially the junior forms.
(Group) leader seems to be the only other possibility, although
this tends to suggest a greater amount of organising activity
than is usually implied by староста. Some English people
prefer to use the Russian word, spelt starosta.

Requests and Orders

261. It is usual in England for teachers to express their wish­
es as requests rather than orders. Thus, if the imperative
is used, please is usually added. Very often, however, some
other form is used, for example:

Will/would you...

I want you to... (please)

I'd like you to...

Here are some examples of various requests.

a. — Open the window, please, Ann. It's very stuffy

in here.

b.— Will you collect the books, please, Brian. е. — Would you read the last sentence again, please. d.— Now I want you to copy these words into your vo­cabulary books. е. I'd like you to read the next chapter for homework.

The same applies to some extent even to reprimands.

e.g. f. (Teacher to class) — Will you please stop talking, g. — Susan, I wish you'd turn round and listen to what I'm saying.

(See also unit 263 below)

While it is not wrong to use the imperative in cases like (b) — (g), frequent use, particularly without please, sounds very abrupt to an English ear.

Note that the practice of putting a comma before and after please does not mean that there must be a pause in speaking. Usually there is no pause. The same applies to proper names placed at the end of the sentence. For instance, example (a) above (Open the window, please, Ann) would normally be said without a pause. If the name occurs at the beginning of the sentence, however, there is usually a slight pause after it.

When the teacher wants the class to read aloud, or trans­late, he may say, for example,

read the passage/text (aloud), translate the passage/text.

or Now I want to hear you read the passage/text.

(For the use of passage and text see units 280, 281.) Then he may say to the first pupil/student:

— Ann, will you start/begin (reading/translating), please. or — Ann, read/translate the first paragraph, please.

When that person has read or translated enough, the teacher may say: "Thank you." or "(Quite) good." It is also possible t<j say: "That's enough." or "That'll do" but these may easily sound discouraging and negative, particularly if a falling intonation is used. If the pupil/student makes a mistake, the teacher may say:

— No,

or That wasn't very good.

and ask him to read the wrong word or sentence again:

— Read that word/sentence again (properly/correctly),
please.

or — Repeat that word/sentence, please.

(not repeat again, unless there has already been at least one repetition. Repeat includes the idea of again.) Then the teacher says to the next pupil/student, for example:

— David, (will you) go on, please.

If several people read in turn, it may be enough simply to

say their names. Just to say Next is possible, but very abrupt in this situation.

262. Here are some examples of the use of prepositions in classroom requests:

a. Open your textbooks/readers at page 28, please.

b. Please turn to page 30 (in your textbooks).

е. Now I want you to

pronounced: (a) hundred and forty-three or (more often) one four three.

d. You are to read up to page 86 (in your textbooks) for homework.

е. Now will you please do

f. Now Гd like you to check your answers from the board.

g. There aren't enough books/copies to go round, so you'll
have to share — one (book/copy) between two.

263. The following orders are widely used to keep discipline during a lesson:

— Stop talking.

— Be quiet.

— Turn round.

— Face the front.

— Keep your eyes on your book/on your own work.

— Listen to what I'm saying.

— Pay attention (to what I'm saying).

— Stop fidgeting (with your pen/pencil, etc.)

— Get on with your work. (Занимайся делом.)

In such cases the imperative is the usual form, although even here please may be added, and the form Will you... (please) is sometimes used, as in example (f) at the beginning of the section.

Answering in Class

264. In English schools children usually answer from their places, without standing up. However, if the teacher wants to call a pupil out to the front of the class for some reason, he says, for example:

— Andrew,

come (out) to the front, please.

will you come (out) to the front (please).

or, if he wants the pupil to write something on the board:

— Andrew, come to the board, please.

When the pupil has finished speaking, or reading, or writ­ing on the board, the teacher says one of the following things:

— Sit down, please.

This is the shortest and most usual form. It does not imply that the pupil is to sit down where he is standing.

— Go and sit down, please.

— Go back to your place (and sit down), please.

Be seated is not to be recommended. It is old-fashioned, or very formal style.

When the teacher asks the whole class a question, the pu­pils should put their hands up and wait for the teacher to ask them. If they do not do so, the teacher may say, for example:

— Don't shout/call out (the answer).

Put your hands up. Put up your hands.

Raise your hands is very formal style and little used in everyday speech.

If, on the contrary, a pupil is asked a question which he cannot answer, it may be necessary for the teacher to say to the others:

— Don't tell him/her (the answer).
or Let him/her think for himself/herself.

If the pupil who has been asked seems to expect one of the others to help him, the teacher can say to him:

— Think for yourself.

Prompt is not usual in this situation.

Note that answer is used in England only when a question is asked. In this respect it differs from the Russian отвечать, which has acquired a wider application in educational institu­tions, meaning not only to answer specific questions but, for example, to reproduce material read at home. As stated in unit 268, this is not customary in England; there teachers generally test pupils on reading homework by asking a series of ques­tions, to be answered by different people. If one pupil speaks on

some subject he has read about for homework, for example, answer is not appropriate and some other verb should be used.

e.g. a. You spoke well.

b. You explained everything clearly.

In such situations there is in fact no need to use a specific verb. The teacher can simply say, for example:

е. That was (very/quite) good.

d. That wasn't very good or That was very poor.

265. Students never stand up to answer questions or speak, and never put their hands up like schoolchildren, except at lectures, where it may be necessary to raise one's hand slight­ly to attract the lecturer's attention and ask a question, and to stand up in order to be heard by everyone. Nevertheless, the expressions given above may be used by teachers in Soviet in­stitutions of further and higher education if the situation demands.

Using the Chalkboard

266. As already mentioned (in unit 127), chalkboard is now replacing blackboard. However, the full form is not often used in the classroom; simply board is quite clear enough in most cases. Here are some examples of usage:

a. Everybody look at the board.

b. John, please come out and write that sentence on the
board.

е. Mary, will you do the exercise on the board, please.

d. Now I'm going to put (up)lwrite the answers on the
board.

e. / want you to copy the sentences from the board.

f. Clean the board, please, John.

g. Rub the last word out. It's wrong.

h. Have you all finished copying the poem? Can I rub it off?

In English schools the board is cleaned either with a spe­cial board rubber, consisting of a piece of thick felt fixed to a piece of wood, or a duster. Sponges are not usual.

Note that teachers call pupils to the board only if they are to write something on it. Otherwise they ask them to come to the front (see unit 264).

Homework

267. The meaning of homework and related words is explained in units 303-306. Here we give examples of usage in the class­room.

At the end of a lesson the teacher may set the class home­work. (In English schools homework is set not after every les-on but only according to the homework timetable.) The follow­ing sentences can be used when setting reading homework:

a. For homework you are to read chapter ten.

b. Finish reading the story for homework/at home.

е. Please read up to page 50 for homework/at home.

Similarly with learning homework:

d. / want you to learn this poem (by heart) for homework.

e. For homework you are to learn the vocabulary on
page 45.

A teacher setting written homework may say, for example:

f.— For (your) homework I want you to do the transla­tion on page 87.

g.— You are to finish this exercise for homework. h.— Your homework is (to do) exercise 4 on page 19.

As explained in unit 303, the word homework tends to be avoided in colleges and universities. Here such sentences as the following are preferred:

i. For

next time/week you are to read/prepare up

to page 75. the next class Monday

j. / want you to translate this passage by next Tuesday.

268. If reading or learning homework was set at the end of the previous lesson, the teacher begins by testing the pupils on it. One may also say that he gives the class a test on their homework.

He may say, for example:

or... on the vocabulary you were/had to learn for homework.... on the passage/chapter you were/had to read at home.

A test may be oral or written; in the case of tests on home­work it is usually a series of questions designed to find out whether the work has been done, and done properly. Oral questions are addressed to the whole class and then answered by different pupils. (In English schools it is not customary to call on one pupil to reproduce a passage read at home.)

In some cases teachers use to ask about/on instead of to test.

e.g. — First I'm going to ask you (some questions) about/on the chapter you were to read for homework.

This is a less formal way of expressing oneself, but the ef­fect may be exactly the same as a test. It is simply a matter of personal style.

In the case of learning homework, the teacher may say: — Now I want you to recite the poem you learnt for homework (not read, which means from a written or printed text).

If a class or group of students have been asked to find out about some subject, or to prepare a talk, the teacher may say, for example:

have you found out about...? can you tell us about...? can you say about...?

tell us about... talk to us about... give us your ideas about/on...

Note that marks are not usually given for oral work in class.

269. In the case of written homework done in rough (see unit 233) mark, correct or go through are used, for example:

— First we'll mark/correct/go through the homework. or... the exercise/translation you did for homework.

(For the distinctions between these verbs, see units 346-348.) If the teacher wants the pupils/students to suggest answers, he can say, for example:

— Susan, what

for

or Read out your (first) sentence/answer, please.

or Give me your answer to number one.

or How did you translate the first/next sentence?

He may then ask the class:

— Do you all agree with that?

give (me) a better answer I translation? improve on that?

or Have you all got that/the same?

Note that a pupil who has not brought his book to the les­son should say:

— I've forgotten (to bring) my book.
or — I've left my book at home.

but not: *— I've forgotten my book at home.

If the homework has already been marked by the teacher, he can say to one of the pupils/students:

— Give out the homework books, please, (see unit 216)
and then to the class:

— Now

go over the homework.

or Now we II go over the exercise/translation you did for home­work.

What has been said about written homework can be ap­plied to students too when the situation calls for it, although, as explained in unit 303, the word homework itself tends to be avoided in universities and colleges.

270. Note that it is not usual in England for teachers to ask the class what they had to do for homework, since this may give the impression that the teacher has forgotten what he set, and thus provide an opportunity for argument. However, if Soviet teachers want to ask this question, the correct forms are:

— What did I give/set you for homework?

— What was your homework?

— What did you have to do for homework?

Teachers sometimes ask their pupils:

— How did you get on with your homework?

meaning: Did you find it 'easy or difficult? Did you manage to do it? Did it take you long?

If a pupil/student has not done what was set, he may say:

I haven't done the/my homework. I'm not prepared.

— Гт sorry. I haven t prepared this chapter.

— Г т afraid I didn't have time to learn the vocabulary.

Ready means physically ready, that is, sitting quietly in one's place with everything one needs for the lesson.

If a pupil/student seems to be unprepared, or badly pre­pared, the teacher can ask, for example:

— Have you prepared this text/chapter?

or — How long did you spend on your homework?

Leaving the Class

271. Many teachers in England do not take formal leave of
their classes. They bring their lesson to an obvious conclusion,
sometimes with a remark such as:

— That's all for today.

or a reference to the next lesson, then collect their books together and go. University teachers rarely take leave of their students after lectures, although they do so more often when there is a smaller group, saying, for example, "See you next week".

If Soviet teachers want to use some form of leave-taking the possibilities are:

— Good-bye, or — See you next week.

or — You may/can go now. (unless the class is staying in the заще room)

XI. VARIOUS FORMS OF TEACHING

IN ENGLAND

272. lesson

This is a general word used mainly, although not exclu­sively, in schools.

e.g. a. English schoolchildren usually have six or seven lessons a day, five days a week.

The type of lesson can be specifed, as follows:

English/French/history lesson, etc.

Note that this is preferable to lesson in English/French! history, which is rarely used in England.

grammar lesson — lesson spent on grammar

oral lesson — lesson spent on some kind of oral work

Conversation lesson

Conversation implies exchanging ideas or experiences in the foreign language in a way which is as near as possible to a natural, spontaneous conversation. Conversation cannot therefore take place in a class of more than about ten. It is pos­sible only in small groups.

Reading lesson

This is a lesson when the class practise reading, often from special readers (see unit 222), and usually answer ques­tions on the text, to show that they understand what they are reading.

Practical lesson

In contrast to the above expressions, this is not generally used in language teaching. The word practical, as opposed to theoretical, can be used with reference to any subject in such expressions as to have a practical approach (to smth.), to give practical explanations/advice. In combination with lesson or work, however, practical usually implies some physical activ­ity other than speaking, reading or writing. In science sub­jects, for example, practical lessons involve carrying out ex­periments, in cookery and needlework making some dish or garment.

The following verbs are most commonly used with lesson: to give a lesson

to conduct a lesson — used in formal style, with particu­lar reference to the process.

e.g. b. The whole lesson was conducted in English.

To take a lesson

Strangely enough, this often means practically the same as to give a lesson.

e.g. е. The English teacher was ill, so one of the students took the lesson.

In some cases, however, to take lessons (usually plural) refers to the learner.

e.g. d. / want to take (some) English lessons, so that I shall be able to talk to visitors from England and America,

To have a lesson

e.g. е. We have four English lessons a week.

to attend a lesson — formal style

to go to a lesson — same meaning, non-formal style. This is the usual form in conversation.

to miss a lesson — meaning not to go, for any reason (see unit 257)

For expressions used in connection with teaching practice, see unit 166.

In universities and colleges teaching takes the form of lectures, classes, seminars and tutorials.

Lecture

This corresponds to лекция. It is a formal method of teach­ing, and, although there may be questions, usually at the end, there is rarely any discussion. The number of students attending is limited only by the size of the room. The following verbs are widely used with lecture: to hold a lecture — often used in the passive

e.g. a. A lecture will be held at the Academy of Sciences

on modern linguistic theory. b. The lecture is being held in room 31.

This is formal style. In non-formal style one would say:

е. There will be a lecture... d. The lecture is in room 31.

To arrange a lecture

e.g. е. We are arranging a lecture on modern American drama.

to give a lecture — the usual equivalent for читать лек­цию

e.g. f.— Are you going to the lecture?

— / don't know. Who's giving it?

g. Professor Walker gave a very interesting lecture on recent changes in the English language.

However, to lecture is often used instead of to give a lecture.

e.g. h.— Are you going to the lecture?

— / don't know. Who's lecturing?

i. Mr Barnett's lecturing on Wordsworth tomorrow. Remember that to lecture may also mean "to be a lecturer".

e.g. j. Peter Hill lectures (in English literature) at Bristol University. (See also unit 157.)

to deliver a lecture — used only in very formal situations

to read a lecture — used only if the lecturer has written out his lecture in full beforehand, and is literally reading, from his lecture notes. One may also say to lecture from notes, although this does not necessarily imply that the whole lecture has been written out. The opposite is to lecture with­out (using) notes.

to attend a lecture — formal style

to go to a lecture — the usual expression in non-formal situations

to miss a lecture (see unit 258)

The prepositions on or in are used with lecture.

On is used with reference to the subject (= тема) of the lecture, as in examples (a), (е), (g), (i), above.

In refers to the field within which a person lectures, as in example (j) above.

To be a good/bad/poor, etc. lecturer is widely used in the sense of хорошо/плохо читать.

e.g. Mr Fowler is a very good lecturer.

Class

A class is less formal than a lecture. There are not usu­ally more than 30 students, sometimes considerably less, and there is generally some discussion between teacher and stu­dents. In modern language departments there are, for example:

translation classes, sometimes divided into

prose classes and translation/unseen classes (see unit 286)

Phonetics classes

conversation classes — see unit 272

Note that an English/French class is preferable to a class in English/French, which is rarely used in England.

To some extent class corresponds to the Russian практи­ческое занятие. As stated in unit 272, practical is used mainly of the so-called practical subjects, such as woodwork, cookery, etc. and the sciences.

The following verbs are widely used with class:

to arrange a class to hold a class

— usage as for lecture (see unit 273)

to take a class — the usual expression for проводить заня mue (see unit 272)

to give a class — sometimes used instead of take to have a class (with smb)

e.g. We have translation classes with Mr Howard.

to attend a class to go to a class to miss a class

—usage as for lecture (see unit 273)

275. seminar

This is a still smaller and more informal group. The num­ber of students usually ranges from five to ten. Seminars are often held weekly, and as a rule one of the group reads a paper (see unit 294), which is then discussed by the others. There is also a tendency now to use seminar in a wider sense, to de­note any meeting for study and/or discussion of some question, not necessarily academic.

The preposition on is used with seminar.

e.g. a seminar on literary criticism/James Joyce

The following verbs are used with seminar in the same way as with lecture and class (see units 273, 274):

to arrange to attend

to hold to go to

to give to miss
to have

To take a seminar is used in the sense of "проводить" and to take part in in the sense of "участвовать".

276. tutorial

In its original form this is an informal weekly meeting of an individual student with his tutor, as described in unit 161, to discuss an essay which the student has written. Howev­er, as mentioned in that unit, even at Oxbridge it is now quite usual for two or more students to attend a tutorial together, and at other universities there are often five or six students in a tutorial group. The form which the tutorial takes varies according to the subject and the institution, but it always involves informal discussion.

Tutorial can be approximately translated as консульта­ция, although they are clearly far from being equivalents.

The same verbs are used with tutorial as with seminar (see unit 275).

IN THE SOVIET UNION

277. The following translations can be recommended:

урок — lesson (see unit 272)

Занятие

Class is the nearest equivalent, although it does not have such a wide meaning, and is often closer to практическое занятие than to занятие in general (see unit 274).

Лекция — lecture

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