A Russian-English/English-Russian translation

prose (translation) —translation from the native language into a foreign language, that is, for Soviet students, from Russian into English.

unseen (translation) or simply translation —translation from a foreign language into the native language, that is, for Soviet students, from English into Russian.

These last two terms are widely used in the senior forms of schools and in higher education. They originated in connection with the study of Latin and Greek. Prose was used because a passage of English prose was given for translation into Latin/Greek, un­seen because a passage of Latin/Greek prose or verse which the stu­dents had not seen before (in contrast to their set books — see unit 219) was given for translation into English. There is no reason why Soviet teachers should adopt these ter,fis, since the terms Russian-English/English-Russian translation are clearer (although much longer), but they may come across prose/unseen in an English situa­tion.

unprepared translation—sometimes used in the sense of any translation not prepared beforehand (as in an examina­tion), and sometimes in the same sense as unseen, as defined above.

—переводить с листа

to translate literally/word for word — переводить бук­вально/дословно

a literal /word-for-word translation to translate freely — свободно переводить a free translation — вольный перевод an exact/accurate translation — точный перевод a rough translation —approximate, capable of being im­proved on

287. Render in one of its senses is a synonym of translate.
The SOED defines it as follows: "to reproduce or express in
another language, to translate". However, it rarely occurs
in that sense now, except in such sentences as:

This idea is difficult to render in English/Russian. Note that render does not imply a freer translation than translate and that it is confined mainly to formal style.

Reproduction

288. Reproduction as used in language teaching generally
means reproducing a story in the foreign language without

translating. For example, the class listen to a story in French and then write that story from memory in French, although not necessarily in exactly the same words and not necessarily including all the details. It is thus a test of comprehension, memory, and of the ability to express oneself in a foreign language, not of the ability to translate. A reproduction may be written or oral.

The verbs do and write are used with reproduction.

e.g. a. Today you're going to do/write a reproduction.

It should be mentioned, however, that reproduction is not a very common type of work in England.

Reproduce can also be used in such sentences as:

b. — Now I'm going to read you a story (in French). Listen to it carefully and then reproduce it (orally/ in writing).

In your own words could be added.

Retell (in one's own words) can be used for oral reproduc­tion of a story.

e.g. е. — You are to read lesson 8 at home, and next lesson I shall ask you to (re) tell the story in your own words.

Write in one's own words can be used to denote written reproduction of a story.

Precis

289. Precis t'preisi], of French origin, denotes a particular type of summary written by schoolchildren or students as an exercise in picking out the important points in a passage and expressing them clearly and concisely. A precis is usually expected to be between a sixth and a tenth of the original in length, depending on how much is expressed in the passage. It is usually done in the native language, but some teachers of English as a foreign language use it too.

Precis is used with the verb to make or to write, as fol­lows:

to make/write a precis of a passage/text/article

It is also used as a verb.

e.g. Precis the following passage.

With reference to complete works (stories, novels, plays, etc.) precis is not appropriate. Here the general words sum­mary, summarise, or the more specific word synopsis are used.

e.g. a. — I'd like you to finish reading the story/novel and

make a summary/synopsis of the plot. b. Summarise the events which led up to the quarrel.

Note that plan cannot be used in such sentences as (a). This word is appropriate only when the novel, story, etc. is: (1) not yet written, (2) made by the author.

Thus the author of a novel, story or play may make a plan of the work he intends to write, or a student may make a plan for an essay (see unit 291), but one cannot make a plan of a work already written by someone else. If Soviet teachers need a word to denote something less than a synopsis of the plot, for example what is called in Russian план текста, the word outline can be used.

e.g. You are to make an outline of the text/passage at home.

However, this type of work is not customary in England and the suggested translation will therefore only give a very general idea of what is meant.

Composition and Essay

290. Composition and essay are both translated into Russian as сочинение but there is a distinction between them.

A composition is fairly short (usually 1-3 pages) and simple, usually narrative or descriptive. Compositions are written by schoolchildren in their own language up to the age of about 14, and in foreign languages as long as they are capable of writing only on simple narrative or descriptive subjects. Compositions may be written by anyone in the early stages of learning a foreign language.

Some examples of composition subjects are:

a. My Hobby.

b. A Visit to the Circus.

е. My Favourite Television Programme.

These are examples of free composition ("сочинение на сво­бодную тему"). However, in the early stages of language learning many teachers prefer guided composition ("сочинение по заданному плану"). The teacher gives the class a plan,

either one he has made himself or one taken from a book, and the class write their compositions according to this plan, or outline. Another type of composition is the picture compo­sition, where the pupils/students write a story told in a ser­ies of pictures.

Composition is also used uncountably to mean the art or technique of putting ideas together, either orally or in writ­ing.

e.g. (From a publisher's catalogue) This book can be used in teaching both oral and written composition.

291. An essay is usually longer (up to about 20 pages). It expresses ideas, as opposed to simply telling a story or de­scribing something, or, if it is narrative or descriptive, it should have some literary merit. Essays are written by older schoolchildren and students in their own language, and, in a foreign language, by those who have sufficiently mastered the language to be able to express their ideas in it, or write literary prose.

Some examples of essay subjects are:

a. The Theme of Ambition in "Macbeth".

b. The Influence of Television on Society.

е. What is the Purpose of Learning Foreign Languages? d. A Storm at Sea.

As essays are written not only in language work, one may speak of a literature essay, a history essay, and so on. Students of the humanities regularly write essays on various aspects of their subject, and examination questions are often in the form of essays (see unit 328).

An essay should be planned, that is, the writer should make a plan before starting to write. An essay plan usually consists of a list of points which one intends to make, in logical order or in order of importance, with reference to illustrations and quotations if necessary. An introduction and a conclusion should also be mentioned. The point of making a plan is that it should be made before, not after writing the essay. Teachers often say to their pupils/stu­dents:

— You must make a plan of your essay before you start

writing.

or — You must plan your essay. We also speak of a well/badly-planned essay.

292. The following expressions with composition/essay are widely used:

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